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THE 



IMPROVEMENT 



OF THE 



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BY ISAAC WATTS, B. JD. 

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TO WHICH ARE ADDED, 

QUESTIONS ADAPTED TO THE WORK 

FOR 
THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES, 



" Few books have been perused by me with greater pleasure than Dr. 
Watts's Improvement of the Mind; of which the radical principles may 
'udeed be found in Locke's Conduct of the Understanding ; but they are 

expanded and ramified by Watts, as to confer on him the merit of a 
ork in the highest degree useful and pleasing. Whoever has the care 
of instructing others may be charged with deficiency in his duty if this 
book is not recommended." Dr. Johnson's Life of Dr. Watts, 



BOSTON: 



1321. 



Q^jr The foliowing pages contain the whole of the 
First Part of Dr. Watts's Improvement of the Mind. This 
is believed to be sufficiently complete in itself without 
the Second Part, and more particularly suited to the ca- 
pacities of Young Persons. Both Parts might render the 
Work too expensive for many scholars, and thus exclud' 
the whole. As this First Part was originally publisher 
in a separate volume, it is plain that the excellent Authc 
did not consider it as having any indispensable connexio 
with the Second. 



DISTRICT OF MASSACHUSETTS, to wit. 

DISTRICT CLERK'S OFFICE 

»******! BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the eighteenth dav 
% L. S. * November, A. D y 18l9,and in the forty-fifth year of the In 
* * pendence of the United States of America, JAMES L« 

******** RING, of the said District, has deposited in this Office the 
title of a Book, the right whereof he claims as Proprietor, in die words 
following, to wit: 

The Improvement of the Mind. By ISAAC WATTS, D. D. To which 
are added, Questions adapted to the Work; for the use of Schools and 

Academies. 
' k Few books have been parused by me with greater pleasure than Dr. 

Watts'i Imp rove me nt of the Mind; of which- the radical principles may 
indeed be found in Locke's Conduct of the Understanding; but they are 
so expanded and ramified by Watts, as to confer on him the merit of a 

work in the highest degree useful and pleasing. Whoever has the care 
of instructing others may be charged with deficiency in his duty if this 

book is not recommended." Dr. Johnson's Life uj Dr. Watts. 

In conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, entitled 
" An Act for the Encouragement of Liarnine, by securing the Copies 
of Maps, Charts and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such Cop- 
ies, during the times therein mentioned:" also to an Act, entitled, "An 
Act supplementary to an Act, entitled, An Act for the Encouragement 
of Learning, by securing the Copies of Maps, Charts and Books, to the 
Authors and Proprietors of such Copies, during the times therein men- 
tioned ; and extending the Benefits thereof to the Arts of Designing, 
Engraving and Etching Historical, and other Prints." 

■ 



PREFACE. 



THE present Treatise, if it may assume the honour of that nam*, fa. 
made up of a variety of remarks and directions for the improvement o! 
the mind in useful knowledge. It was collected from the observations 
which I had made on my own studies, and on the temper and sentiments » 
the humour and conduct of other men in their pursuit of learning, or in 
the affairs of life ; and it has been considerably assisted by occasional col» 
lections, in the course of my reading, from many authors on different sub= 
jects. I confess, hi far the greatest part, I stand bound to answer for the 
weaknesses or defects that will be found in these papers, not being able to 
point to other writers whence the twentieth part pf them are derived. 

The work was composed at different times, and by slow degrees;. Now 
and then, indeed, it spread itself into branches and leaves, like a plant in 
April, and advanced seven or eight pages in a week: and sometimes it 
iay by without growth, like a vegetable in the winter, and did not increase 
half so much in the revolution of a year. 

As these thoughts occurred to me in reading or meditation, or in my 

notices of the various appearances of tilings amongst mankind, they were 

thrown under those heads which make the present titles of the chapters, 

and were by degrees reduced to something like a method, such as the sub" 

ect would admit. 

On these accounts, it is not to be expected that the same accurate order 
should be observed, either in the whole book, or in the particular chap ter 
thereof, which is necessary in the system of any science whose scheme is 
projected at once. A book which has been twenty years a writing may 
be indulged in some variety of style and manner, though I hope there will 
not be found any great difference of sentiment ; for wherein I had im- 
proved in latter years, beyond what I had first written, a few dashes and 
alterations have corrected the mistakes : and if the candour of the readcr 
will but allow what is defective in one place to be supplied by additions 
from another, I hope there will be found a sufficient reconciliation of wlra, 
might seem, at first, to be scarce consistent. 

The language and dress of these sentiments is such as the present tern 
per of mind dictated, whether it were grave or pleasant, severe or smiling-. 
If there has been any thing expressed with too much severity, I suspect i 
will be found to fall upon those sneering or daring writers of the age 



iv PREFACE. 

against religion and against the Christian scheme, who seem to have left j 
reason, or decency, or both behind them, in some of their writings. 

The same apology of the length of years in composing this book, may i 
serve also to excuse a repetition of the same sentiments which may happen 
to be found in different places without the author's design ; but in other I 
pages it was intended, so that those rules, for the conduct of the under- 
standing, which are most necessary, should be set in several lights, that 
they might, with more frequency, and more force, impress the soul. 1 
shall be sufficiently satisfied with the good humour and lenity of my read- ] 
ers, if they will please to regard these papers as parcels of imperfect 
sketches, which were designed by a sudden pencil, and in a thousand leis- 
ure moments, to be, one day, collected into landscapes of some little pros- i 
pects i» the regions of learning, and in the world of common life, pointing 
out the fairest and most fruitful spots, as well as the rocks, and wildernesses-,, , 
and faithless morasses of the country. But I feel age advancing upon 
me ; and my health is insufficient to perfect what I had designed, to in- 
crease and amplify these remarks, to confirm and improve these rules, and | 
to illuminate the several pages with a richer and more beautiful variety of | 
examples. The subject is almost endless; and new writers in thepres- \ 
ent, and in the following ages, may still find sufficient follies, weaknesses, j 
and dangers, among mankind, to be represented in such a manner as to ' 
guard youth against them. 

These hints, such as they are, I hope may be rendered some way useful i 
to persons in younger years, who will favour them with a perusal, and i 
who would seek the cultivation of their own understandings in the early 
days of life. Perhaps they may find something here which may wake a 
latent genius and direct the studies of a willing mind. Perhaps it may 
point out to ^student, now and then, what may employ the most useful 
liabours of his thoughts, and accelerate his diligence in the most momentous 
inquiries. Perhaps a sprightly youth might here meet with something to 
3juard or warn him against mistakes, and withhold him, at other times, 
from those pursuits which are like to be fruitless and disappointing. 

Let it be observed also, that, in our age, several of the ladies pursue, 
science with success ; and others of them are desirous of improving their 
reason, even in the connnon affairs of life, as well as the men : yet tire 
characters which are here drawn occasionally are almost universally ap- 
plied to one sex ; but if any of the other shall find a character which suits 
them, they may, by a small change of the termination, apply and assume 
it to themselves, and accept the instruction, the admonition, or the ap- 
plause, which is designed in it. 



THE 

IMPROVEMENT OF THE MIND. 

Directions for the Attainment of useful Knowledge. 

INTRODUCTION. 

NO man is obliged to learn and know every thing ; 
this can neither be sought nor required, for it is utter- 
ly impossible ; yet all persons are under some obliga- 
tion to improve their own understanding ; otherwise it 
will be a barren desert, or a forest overgrown with weeds 
and brambles. Universal ignorance or infinite errors 
will overspread the mind, which is utterly neglected, 
and lies without any cultivation. 

Skill in the sciences is indeed the business and pro- 
fession but of a small part of mankind ; but there are 
many others placed in such an exalted rank in the 
world, as allows them much leisure and large oppor- 
tunities to cultivate their reason, and to beautify and 
enrich their minds with various knowledge. Even thfr 
lower orders of men have particular callings in life, 
wherein they ought to acquire a just degree of skill ; 
and this is not to be done well, without thinking and 
reasoning about them. 

The common duties and benefits of society, which, 
belong to every man living, as we are social creatures, 
and even our native and necessary relations to a fami- 
ly, a neighbourhood, or government, oblige all per- 
sons whatsoever to use their reasoning powers upon a 
thousand occasions ; every hour of life calls for some 
regular exercise of our judgment as to times and things, 
persons and actions ; without a prudent and discreet 
determination in matters before us, we shall be plung- 
ed into perpetual errors in our conduct, Now tfrat 
B 



INTRODUCTION - , 



which should always be practised, must at some time 1 . 
be learnt. 

Besides, every son and daughter of Adam has a mostf 
important concern in the affairs of a life to come, and? 
therefore it is a matter of the highest moment for ev-^ 
ery oxie to understand, to judge, and to reason right I 
about the things of religion. It is vain for any to 1 ; 
say, we have no leisure or time for it. The daily inter-" 
vals of time, and vacancies from necessary labour, to-; 
gether with the one day in seven in the Christian world, 
allows sufficient time for this, if men would but apply; 
themselves to it with half so much zeal and diligence', 
as they do to the trifles and amusements of this life ; 
and it would turn to infinitely better account. 

Thus it appears to be the necessary duty, and the in- 
terest of every person living, to improve his under- 
standing, to inform his judgment, to treasure up useful 
knowledge, and to acquire the skill of good reasoning,! 
as far as his station, capacity, and circumstances fur-| 
nish him with proper means for it. Our mistakes in} 
judgment may plunge us into much folly and guilt irt 
practice. By acting without thought or reason, wq 
dishonour the God th^.t made us reasonable creatures, 1 
we often become injurious to our neighbours, kindred] 
or friends, and we bring sin and misery upon ourselves] 
For we are accountable to God, our judge, for every 
part of our irregular and mistaken conduct, where he 
hath given us sufficient advantages to guard agains^ 
those mistakes. 

It is the design of Logic to give this improvement to! 
the mind, and to teach us the right use of reason in the 
acquirement and communication of all useful know! 
edge ; though the greatest part of writers on that subi 
ject have turned it into a composition of hard words! 
trifles, and subtelties, for the mere use of the schools} ; 
and that only to amuse the minds and the ears of men: 
with empty sounds, which flatter their vanity, and puf 
up their pride with a pompous and glittering show oj 
false learning ; and thus they have perverted the greaj 
and valuable design of that science. 

A few modern writers have endeavoured to recovei 
the honour of Logic, since that excellent author of th4 
A rt of Thinking led the way. Among the rest, I hav<| 
presumed to make an attempt of the same kind, in i 
treatise published several years ago, wherein it wajj 



XNTRODUCTIOK, I 

my constant aim to assist the reasoning powers of ev- 
ery rank and order of men, as well as to keep an eye 
to the best interest of the schools, and the candidates 
of true learning. There I have endeavoured to show 
the mistakes we are exposed to in our conception,, 
judgment, and reasoning ; and pointed to the various 
springs of them. I have also laid down many general 
and particular rules how to escape error, and attain 
truth in matters of the civil and religious life, as well 
as in the sciences. 

But there are several other observations very per- 
tinent to this purpose, which have not fallen so direct- 
ly under any of those heads of discourse, or at least 
they would have swelled that treatise to an improper 
size ; and therefore I have made a distinct collection, 
of them here out of various authors, as well as from 
my own observation, and set them down under the fol- 
lowing heads. 

The learned world, who have done so much unmer- 
ited honour to that logical treatise, as to receive it into 
our two nourishing Universities, may possibly admit 
this as a second part or supplement to that treatise. 
And I may venture to persuade myself, that if the 
common and the busy ranks of mankind, as weli as 
the scholar and the gentleman, would but transcribe 
such rules into their understanding, and practise them 
upon -<■ 11 occasions, there would be much more truth 
and knowledge found among men ; and it is reasona- 
ble to hope that justice, virtue, and goodness would at- 
tend as the happy consequents. 

CHAPTER I. 
General Rules for the Imfirovement of Knitvledge* 

Rule I. 

DEEPLY possess your mind with the vast impor- 
tance of a good judgment, and the rich and inestima,-. 

* Though the most of these following rules are chiefly addressed to 
those whom their fortune or their station requires to addict themselves to 
the particular improvement of their minds in greater degrees of knowl- 
edge; yet every one who has leisure and opportunity to be acquainted 
with such writings as these, may find something among them for their 
own use. 



8 SEKEK.AL RULES TO 

ble advantage cf right reasoning. Review the instan- 
ces of your own misconduct in life ; think seriously 
■with yourselves how many follies and sorrows you had 
escaped, and how much guilt and misery you had pre- 
vented, if from your early years you had but taken 
due pains to judge aright concerning persons, times, 
and things. This will awaken you with lively vigour 
to address yourselves to the work of improving your 
reasoning powers, and seizing every opportunity and 
advantage for that end. 

Rule II. Consider the weakness, frailties, and 
mistakes of human nature in general, which arise from 
the very constitution of a soul united to an animal body, 
and subjected to many inconveniencies thereby. Con- 
sider the many additional weaknesses, mistakes, and 
frailties, which are derived from ouroriginal apostasy and 
fall from a state of innocence ; how much our powers of 
understanding are yet more darkened, enfeebled, and 
imposed upon by our senses, our fancies, and our un- 
ruly passions 8cc. Consider the depth and difficulty 
of many truths, and the flattering appearances of 
falsehood, whence arises an infinite variety of dangers 
to which we are exposed in our judgment of things. 
Read with greediness those authors that treat of the 
doctrine of prejudices, prepossessions, and springs of 
error, on p urpose to make your soul watchful on all 
sides, that it suffer itself, as far as possible, to be 
imposed upon by none of them. See more on this sub- 
ject, Logic, Part II. Chap. 3, and Part III. Chap. 3. 

Pule III. A slight view of things so momentous is 
not sufficient. You should therefore contrive and prac- 
tise sou e proper methods to acquaint yourself with 
your own ignorance, and to impress your mind with a 
deep and painful sense of the low and imperfect degrees 
of your present knowledge, that you may be incited 
with labour and activity to pursue after greater meas- 
ures. Among ethers, you may find somesuch methods 
as thc^e successful. 

1. Take a wide survey now and then, of the vast 
and unlimited regions of learning. Let your meditations 
run over the names of all the sciences, with their nu- 
merous branchings, and innumerable particular*themes 
of knowledge ; and then reflect how few of them you 
are acquainted with in any tolerable degree. The 
most learned of mortals will never find occasion to 



OBTAIJ? KNOWLEDGE, 

act over again, what is fabled of Alexander <he Ore 
that when he had conquered what was called U^ Easv_ 
ern World, he wept for want of more worlds to con- 
quer. The worlds of science are immense and endless. 

2, Think what a numberles variety of questions and 
difficulties there are belonging even to that particular 
science in which you have made the greatest progress, 
and how few of them there are in which you have ar- 
rived at a final and undoubted certainty; excepting 
only those questions in the pure and simple mathemat- 
ics, whose theorems are demonstrable and leave scarce- 
ly any doubt ; and yet even in the pursuit of some few 
of these, mankind have been strangely bewildered, 

3. Spend a few thoughts sometimes on the puzzling 
inquiries concerning vacuums and atoms, the doctrine 
of infinities, indivisibles, and incommensurables in ge- 
ometry, wherein there appear some insolvable difiV 
culties. Do this on purpose to give you a more sensible 
impression of the poverty of your understanding, and 
the imperfection of your knowledge. This will teach 
you what a vain thing it is to fancy that you know all 
things ; and will instruct you to think modestly of yout 
present attainments, when every dust of the earth, and 
every inch of empty space, surmounts your understand- 
ing and triumphs over your presumption. Arithmo 
had been bred up to accounts all his life, and thought 
himself a complete master of numbers. But when he 
was pushed hard to give the square root of the num- 
ber 2, he tried at it, and- laboured long in millesimal 
fractions, until he confessed there was no end of the in- 
quiry ; and yet he learned so much modesty by this 
perplexing question, that he was afraid to say it was 
an impossible thing. It is some good degree of improve- 
ment when we are afraid to be positive. 

4. Read the accounts of those vast treasures of 
knowledge which some of the dead have possessed, and 
which some of the living do possess. Read and be as- 
tonished at the almost incredible advances which have 
been made in science. Acquaint yourselves with some, 
persons of learning, that by converse among them, and 
comparing yourselves with them, you may acquire a 
mean opinion of your own attainments, and may be 
thereby animated with new zeal, to equal them as fat- 
as possible, or to exceed : thus let your diligence be 
Quickened by a generous and laudable emulatftn. If 
"B'2 



» GENERAL RULES TO 

ble^nilluF had never met with Scitorio and Polydes, he 
riad never imagined himself a mere novice in Philoso- 
phy, nor ever set himself to study in good earnest. 

Remember this, that if upon some few superficial ac- 
quirements, you value, exalt, and swell yourself, as 
though you were a man of learning already, you are 
thereby building a most unpassable barrier against all 
improvement ; you will lie down and indulge idleness, 
and rest yourself contented in the midst of deep and 
shameful ignorance. Multi ad scieniiam fiervenissent 
si se illuc fiervenisse rwn fiiitasaent . 

Rule IV. Presume not too much upon a bright 
genius, a ready wit, and good parts, for these without 
labour *nd study will never make a man of knowledge 
and wisdom. This has been an unhappy temptation 
to persons of a vigorous and gay fancy to despise learn- 
ing and study. They have been acknowledged to 
shine in an assembly, and sparkle in a discourse upon 
common topics, and thence they took it into their heads 
to abandon reading and labour, and grow old in igno- 
rance; but when they had lost the vivacities of animal 
nature and youth, they became stupid and sottish even 
to contempt and ridicule. Lucidas and Scintillo are 
young men of this stamp ; they shine in conversation, 
they spread their native riches before the ignorant; 
they pride themselves in their own lively images of 
f.incy, and imagine themselves wise and learned; but 
they had best avoid the presence of the skilful, and the 
test of reasoning ; and I would advise them once a day 
to think forward a little, what a contemptible figure 
they will make in age. 

The witty men sometimes have sense enough to 
know their own foible, and therefore they craftily shun 
the attacks of argument, or boldly pretend to despise 
and renounce them ; because they are conscious of their 
own ignorance, and inwardly confess their want of 
acquaintance with the skill of reasoning. 

Rule V. As you are not to fancy yourself a learn- 
ed man, because you are blessed with a ready wit, so 
neither must you imagine that large and laborious 
reading, and a strong memory, can denominate you 
truly wise. 

What that excellent critic has determined when he 
decided the question, whether wit or study makes the 



OBTAIN KNOWLEDGE. 11 

"best poet, may well be applied to every sort of learn- 
ing :- 



•Ego nee studium sine divite vena, 



Nee rude quid prosit? video ingenium : alterius sic 
Altera poscit opem res, et conjurat amice. 

Hor. de Art. Post, 

THUS MADE ENGLISH ; 

Concerning poets there has been contest, 

Whether they're made by art or nature best! 

But if I may presume in this affair, 

Among the rest my judgment to declare, 

No art without a genius will avail, 

And parts without the help of art will fail s 

But both ingredients jointly must unite, 

Or verse will never shine with a transcendent light. 

Qldham* 

It is meditation and studious thought, it is the exer-? 
cise of your own reason and judgment upon all you read, 
that gives good sense even to the best genius, and af- 
fords your understanding the truest improvement. A 
boy of a strong memory may repeat a whole book of 
Euclid, yet be no Geometrician ; for he may not be 
able perhaps to demonstrate ,one single theorem. Me- 
morino has learnt half the Bible by heart, and is be- 
come a living concordance, and a speaking index to 
theological folios, and yet he understands little of di- 
vinity, 

A well furnished library and a capacious memory 
are indeed of singular use towards the improvement 
of the mind ; but if all your learning be nothing else 
but a mere amassment of what others have written, 
without a due penetration into their meanings, and 
without a judicious choice and determination of your 
own sentiments, I do not see what title your head has 
to true learning above your shelves, Though you 
have read Philosophy and Theology, Morals and Met- 
aphysics in abundance, and every other art and sci- 
ence, yet ir'you' memory is the only faculty employ- 
ed, with the neglect of your reasoning powers, you can 
justly claim no higher character than that of a good 
historian of the sciences. 

Here note. Many of the foregoing advices are more 
peculiarly proper for thos* who are conceited of their 
abilities, and are ready to entertain a high opinion of 
themselves. But a modest, humble youth, of a good 
genius, should not suffer himself to be discouraged by 



12 GENERAL RULES TO 

any of these considerations. They are designed only 
as a spur to diligence, and a guard against vanity and 
pride. 

Rule VI. Be not so weak as to imagine, that a 
life of iearning is a life of laziness and ease, Dare not 
give up yourself to any of the learned professions, un- 
less you are resolved to labour hard at study, and can. 
make it your delight, and the joy of your life, according 
to the motto of our late Lord Chancellor King, Labor 
ipse volufitas* 

It is no idle thing to be a scholar indeed. A man 
much addicted to luxury and pleasure, recreation and 
pastime, should never pretend to devote himself entire- 
ly to the sciences, unless his soul be so reformed and 
refined, that he can taste all these entertainments emi- 
nently in his closet, among his books and papers. So- 
brino is a temperate man and a philosopher, and he 
feeds upon partridge and pheasant, venison and ra- 
gouts, and every delicacy, in a growing understanding, 
and a serene and healthy soul, though he dines on a 
dish of sprouts or turnips. Languinos loved his ease, 
and therefore chose to be brought up a scholar ; he 
had much indolence in his temper, and as he never 
cared for study, he falls under universal contempt in 
his profession, because he has nothing but the gown 
and the name. 

Rule VII. _ Let the hope of new discoveries, as 
well as the satisfaction and pleasure of known truths, 
animate your daily industry. Do not think learning 
in general is arrived at its perfection, or that the 
knowedge of any particular subject in any science can- 
non be improved, merely because it has lain five hun- 
dred or a thousand years without improvement. The 
present age, by the blessing of God on the ingenuity 
and diligence of men, has brought to light such truths 
in natural philosophy, and such discoveries in the 
heavens and the earth, as seemed to be beyond the 
reach of man. But may there not be Sir Isiiac New- 
tons in every science? You should never despair there- 
fore of finding out that which h as never yet been found, 
unless you see something in the nature of it which ren- 
ders it unsearchable, and abo : the reach of our fac- 
ulties. 

Nor should a student jn i •••! le thntour age 

is arrived at a full i md ersta . thing which 



OBTAIN KNOWLEDGE. 13 

can be known by the Scriptures. Every age since 
the Reformation hath thrown some further light on 
difficult texts and paragraphs of the Bible, which have 
been long obscured by the early rise of antichrist ; and 
since there are at present many difficulties and dark- 
nesses hanging about certain truths of the Christian Re- 
ligion, and since several of these relate to important 
doctrines, such as the Origin of Sin, the Fall of Adam, 
the Person of Christ, the Blessed Trinity, the Decrees 
of God, &c. which do still embarrass the minds of hon- 
est and inquiring readers, and which make work for 
noisy controversy; it is certain there are several things 
in the Bible yet unknown and not sufficiently explain- 
ed , and it is certain that there is some way to solve these 
difficulties, and to reconcile these seeming contradic- 
tions. And why may not a sincere searcher of truth 
in he present age, by labour, diligence, study and 
prayer, with the best use of his reasoning powers, find 
out the proper solution of those knots and perplexities 
which have hitherto been unsolved, and which have 
afforded matter for angry quarrelling ; happy is every 
man who shall be favoured of Heaven to give a help- 
ing hand towards the introduction of the blessed age 
of light and love. 

' Rule VIII. Do not hover always on the surface 
of things, nor take up suddenly, with mere appearan- 
ces ; but penetrate into the depth of matters, as far as 
your time and circumstances allow, especially in those 
things which relate to your own profession. Do not 
indulge yourselves to judge of things by the first 
glimpse, or a short and superficial view of them ; for 
this will fill the mind with errors and prejudices, give 
it a wrong turn and ill habit of thinking, and make 
much work for retraction. Subito is carried away 
with title pages, so that he ventures to pronounce up-* 
on a large octavo at once, and to recommend it won- 
derfully, when he has read half the preface. Another 
volume of controversies of equal size was discarded by 
him at once, because it pretended to treat of the Trin- 
ity, and vet he could neither find the word essence, 
nor subsistencies in the twelve first pages ; but Subito 
changes his opinions of men, and books, and things so 
often, that nobody regards him. 

As for those sciences, or those parts of knowledge,, 
which either your profession, your leisure, your incli- 



14 CSI5JEB.AL RULES TO 

nation, or your incapacity, forbids you to pursue with 
much application, or to search far into them, you must 
be contented with an historical and superficial knowl- 
edge of them, and not pretend to form any judgments I 
of your own, on those subjects which you understand j 
very imperfectly. 

Rule IX. Once a day, especially in the early 
years of life and study, call yourselves to an account 
what new ideas, what new proposition or truth you 
have gained, what further confirmation of known 
truths, and what advances you have made in any part 
of knowledge ; and let no day, if possible, pass away 
without some intellectual gain ; such a course, well 
pursued, must certainly advance us in useful knowl- 
edge. It is a wise proverb among the learned, bor- 
rowed from the lips and practice of a celebrated pain- 
ter, nulla dies sine linea ; let no day pass without one 
line at least ; and it was a sacred rule among the Py- 
thagoreans, that they should every evening thrice run 
over the actions and affairs of the day, and examine 
what their conduct had been, what they had done, or 
what they had neglected ; and they assured their pu- 
pils that by this method they would make a noble pro- 
gress in the path of virtue. 

Jfor let soft slumber close 3'our eyes, 
Before you've recollected thrice 
The tram of actions through the day : 
Where have my feet cho9e out their way J. 
"What have I learnt, where'er I've beens 
From all I've heard, from all I've seen ? 
What know I more that's worth the knowing ? 
What have I done that's worth the doing ? 
What have I sought that I should shun? "} 
W'hat duty have I left undone ? £• 

Or into what new follies run? J 

These self inquiries are the road 
That leads to virtue, and to God. 

I would be glad, among a nation of Christians, to find 
young men heartily engaged in the practice of what 
this heathen writer teaches. 

Rule X. Maintain a constant watch at all times 
against a dogmatical spirit ; fix not your assent to any 
proposition in a firm and unalterable manner, till you 
have some firm and unalterable ground for it, and "till 
you have arrived at some clear and sure evidence ; till 
you have turned the proposition en all sideband search- 
ed the matter through and through, so that you cannot 



OBTAIN KKTOWLEDEE. 15 

be mistaken, And even where ycu may think you have 
full grounds of assurance, be not too early, nor too fre- 
quent, in expressing this assurance in too peremptory 
and positive a manner, remembering that human na- 
ture is always liable to mistake in this corrupt and fee- 
ble state. A dogmatical spirit has many inconvenien- 
cies attending it : As 

1. It stops the ear against all further reasoning upon 
that subject, and shuts up the mind from all further 
improvements of knowledge. If you have resolutely 
fixed your opinion, though it be upon too slight and in- 
sufficient grounds, yet you will stand determined to 
renounce the strongest reason brought for the contrary 
opinion, and grow obstinate against the force of the 
clearest argument Positivo is a man of this character, 
and has often pronounced his assurance of the Carte- 
sian vortexes ; last year some further light broke in 
upon his understanding, with uncontrollable force, by 
reading something of mathematical philosophy; yet 
having asserted his former opinions in a most confident 
manner, he is tempted now to wink a little against the 
truth, or to prevaricate in his discourse upon that sub- 
ject, lest, by admitting conviction, he should expose 
himself to the necessity of confessing his former folly 
and mistake ; and he has not humility enough for that. 

2. A dogmatical spirit naturally leads us to arro- 
gance of mind, and gives a man some airs in conver- 
sation, which are too haughty and assuming. Audens 
is a man of learning, and very good company, but his 
infallible assurance renders his carriage sometimes 
insupportable. 

3 A dogmatical spirit inclines a man to be censori- 
ous of his neighbours. Every one of his own opinions 
appears to him written as it were with sunbeams, and 
he grows angry that his neighbour does not see it in the 
same light. He is tempted to disdain his correspond- 
ents, as men of a low and dark understanding, because 
they will not believe what he does. Furio goes farther 
in this wild track, and charges those who refuse his 
notions with wilful obstinacy, and vile hypocrisy; he 
tells them boldly that they resist the truth and sin 
against their consciences. 

These are the men, that when they deal in contro- 
versy delight in reproaches. They abound in tossing 
about absurdity and stupidity among their brethren. 



IS GENERAL RULES TO 

They cast the imputation of heresy and nonsense plen- 
tifully upon their antagonists ; and in matters of sacred 
importance, they deal out their anathemas in abun- 
dance, upon Christians better than themselves ; they 
denounce damnation upon their neighbours, without 
either justice or mercy; and when they pronounce 
sentences of divine wrath against supposed heretics, 
they add their own human fire and indignation. A dog - 
matist in religion is not a great way off from a bigot, 
and is in high danger of growing up to be a bloody 
persecutor. 

Rule XL Though caution and slow assent will 
guard you against frequent mistakes and retractions, 
yet you should get humility and courage enough to re- 
tract any mistake, and confess an error; frequent 
changes are tokens of levity in our first determinations; 
yet you should never be too proud to change your opin- 
ion, nor frighted at the name of a changeling. Learn 
to scorn those vulgar bugbears which confirm foolish 
man in his old mistakes, for fear of being charged with 
inconstancy. I confess it is better not to judge, than to 
judge falsely, and it is wiser to withhold our assent till 
we see complete evidence ; but if we have too sudden- 
ly given our assent, as the wisest man does sometimes, 
if we have professed what we find afterwards to be 
false, we should never be ashamed nor afraid to re- 
nounce a mistake. That is a noble essay which is found 
among the occasional papers, to encourage the world 
to practise retractions ; and I would recommend it to 
the perusal of every scholar and every Christian. 

Rule XII. He" that would raise his judgment above 
the vulgar rank of mankind, and learn to pass a just 
sentence on persons and things, must take heed of a 
fanciful temper of mind, and a humorous conduct in his 
affairs. Fancy and humour, early and constantly in- 
dulged, may expect an old nge overrun with follies. 

The notion of a humorist is one th at is greatly pleas- 
ed, or greatly displeased with little things, who sets his 
heart much upon matters of very small importance; 
who has his will determined every day by trifles, his 
actions seldom directed by the reason and nature of 
things, and his passions frequently raised by things of 
little moment. Where this' practice is allowed, it will 
insensibly warp the judgment to pronounce little things 
great, and tempt you to lay 3 great weight upon them- 



OBTAIN KNOWLEDGE. 17 

In short, this temper will incline you to pass an unjust 
value on almost every thing that occurs ; and every 
step you take in this path is just so far out of the way 
to wisdom. 

Rule XIII. For the same reason have a care of 
trifling with things important and momentous, or of 
sporting with things awful and sucred ; do not indulge 
a spirit of ridicule, as some witty men do on all occa- 
sions and subjects. This will as unhappily bias the 
judgment on the other side, and incline you to pass a 
low esteem en the most valuable objects. Whatsoev- 
er evil habit we indulge in practice, it will insensibly 
obtain a power over our understanding, and betray us 
into many errors. Jocander is ready with his jest to 
answer every thing that he hears; he reads books in 
the same jovial humour, and has gotten the art of turn- 
ing every thought and sentence into merriment. How 
many awkward and irregular judgments does this man 
pass upon solemn subjects, even when he designs to be 
grave and in earnest ? His mirth and laughing humour 
is formed into habit and temper, and leads his under- 
standing shamefully astray. You will see him wan- 
dering in pursuit of a gay flying feather, and he is 
drawn by a kind of ignis fatuus into bogs, and mire, 
almost every day of his life. 

Rule XIV. Ever maintain a virtuous and pious 
frame of spirit ; for an indulgence of vicious inclina- 
tions debases the understanding and perverts the judg- 
ment. Whoredom and wine, and new wine, take a- 
way the heart and soul, and reason of a man. Sensu- 
ality ruins the better faculties of the mind ; an indul- 
gence to appetite and passion enfeebles the powers of 
reason, it makes the judgment weak and susceptive of 
every falsehood, and especially of such mistakes as 
have a tendency towards the gratification of the ani- 
mal ; and it warps the soul aside strangely from that 
steadfast honesty and integrity that necessarily belongs 
to the pursuit of truth. It is the virtuous man who is 
in a fair way to wisdom. " God gives to those that are 
good in his sight, wisdom, and knowledge, and joy." 
Eccl.ii.26. 

Piety towards God, as well as sobriety and virtue, 

are necessary qualifications to make a truly wise and 

judicious man. He that abandons religion must act in 

such a contradiction to his own conscience and best 

C 



18 GENERAL S.ULES TO 

judgment, that he abuses and spoils the faculty itself. 
It is thus in the nature of things, and it is thus by the 
righteous judgment of God; even the pretenued sages j 
among the heathens, who did not like to retain God in 
their knowledge, they were given up to a reprobate 
mind, *k vow uSom^ov an undistinguished or injudicious I. 
mind, so tuat they judged inconsistently, and practised j 
mere absurdities, rx ,4o> avwovr*, Rom. i. 28. 

And it is the character of the slaves of antichrist, 2 .j 
Thess. ii. 10, &c. that those " who receive not the love ! 
of the truth, were exposed to the power of diabolical ! 
sleights and lying wonders." When divine revelation | 
shines and blazes in the face of men with glorious ev- | 
idence, and they wink their eyes against it, the God of j 
this world is suffered to blind them even in the most I 
obvious, common, and sensible things. The great God I 
of heaven, for this cause, sends them strong delusions 
that they should believe a lie: and the nonsense of | 
transubstantiation in the popish world, is a most glaring | 
accomplishment of this prophecy, beyond even what \ 
could have been thought of or expected among crea- 
tures who pretend to reason. 

Rule XV. Watch against the pride of your own 
reason, and a vain conceit of your own intellectual pow- 
ers, with the neglect of divine aid and blessing. Pre- 
sume not upon great attainments in knowledge by you? 
own self-sufficiency ; those who trust to their own un- 
derstandings entirely, are pronounced fools in the wcrd 
of God ; and it is the wisest of men gives them this 
character ; " he that trusteth in his own heart is a fool." 
Prov. xxviii. 26. And the same divine writer advises 
us " to trust in the Lord with all our hearts, and not to 
lean to our own understandings, nor to be wise in cur 
own eyes." Chap. iii. 5, 7. 

Those who, with a neglect of religion, and depend- 
ence on God, apply themselves to search out every ar- 
ticle in the things of God by the mere dint of their own 
reason, have been suffered to run into wild excesses 
of foolery, and strange extravagance of opinions. Every 
one who pursues this vain course and will not ask for 
the conduct of God in the study of religion, has just 
reason to fear he shall be left of God, and given up a 
prey to a thousand prejudices; that he sh:;ll be con- 
signed over to the follies of his own heart, and pursue 
his own temporal and eternal rum. And ?ve r ' i? c m - 



OBTAIW KNOWLEDGE. 19 

men studies, we should, by humility and dependence, 
engage the God of truth on our side. 

Rule XVI. Offer up therefore your daily requests 
to God, the Father of lights, that he would bless all 
your attempts and labours in reading, study, and con- 
versation. Think with yourself, how easily and how 
insensibly, by one turn of thought, he can lead you into 
a large scene of useful ideas ; he can teach you to lay 
hold on a clue which may guide vour thoughts with, 
safety and ease through all the difficulties of an intri- 
cate subject. Think how easily the Author of your be- 
ings can direct your motions by his providence, so that 
the glance of an eye, or a word striking the ear, or a 
sudden turn of the fancy, shall conduct you to a train 
of happy sentiments. By his secret and supreme me- 
thod of government, he can draw you to read such a 
treatise, or converse with such a person, who may give 
you more light into some deep subject in an hour, than 
you could obtain by a month of your own solitary labour. 

Think with yourself, with how much ease the God 
of spirits can cast into your minds, some useful sugges- 
tion, and give a hfcppy turn to your own thoughts, or the 
thoughts of those with whom you converse, whence 
you may derive unspeakable light and satisfaction! in a 
matter that has long puzzled and entangled you; he 
can shew you a "fiath which the vulture's eye hath not 
seen' 1 and lead you by some unknown gate or portal, 
out of a wilderness and labyrinth of difficulties> wherein 
you have been long wandering. 

Implore constantly his divine grace to point your in- 
clination to proper studies, and to fix your heart there. 
He can. keep off temptations on the right hand, and on 
the left, both by the course of hi* providence, and by 
the secret and insensible intimations of his Spirit. He 
can guard your understandings from evey evil influence 
hi er'r,v, and secure you from the danger of evil books 
and men, which might otherwise have a fatal effect* 
and lead you into pernicious mistakes. 

Nor let this sort of advice fall under the censure of 
the godless and profane, as a mere piece of bigotry or 
Enthusiasm, derived from faith and the Bible; for the 
reasons which I have given to support this pious prac- 
tic of invoking the blessing of God on our studies, are 
derived from the light of nature as well as revelation, 
lie that made our souls, and is the Father of spirits.. 



20 GENERAL B.ULES, &C. 

shall he not be supposed to have a most friendly influ- 
ence towards the instruction and government of them ? 
The Author of our rational powers can involve them in 
darkness when he pieases, by a sudden distemper : or 
he can abandon them to wander into dark and foolish 
opinions, when they are filled with a vain conct it of their 
own light He expects to be acknowledged in the 
common affairs of life, and he does as certainly expect 
it in the superior operations of the mind, and in the 
search of knowledge and truth. The very Greek hea- 
thens, by the 'ight of reason, were taught to say, 'Ex 
Atog a§x°f- J(r8a ' an< 3 tf ie Latins, " A Jove Princifiium 
Muse?." In works of learning they thought it necessa- 
ry to begin with God. Even the poets call upon the 
muse as a goddess to assist them in their compositions. 

The first liney of Homer,iu his Iliad, and Odyssey, the 
first line of Musseus, in his song of Hem and Le--nder, 
the beginning of Hesiod,in his poem of Weeks and Days, 
and several others, furnish us with sufficient examples 
of this kind ; nor does Ovid leave out this piece of de- 
votion as he begins his stories of the Metamorphosis, 
Christianity so much the more obliges us by the pre- 
cepts of Scripture to invoke the assistance of the true 
God in all our labours of the mind, for the improvement 
of ourselves and others. Bishop Saunderson says, that 
study without prayer is atheism, as well as that prayer 
without study is presumption. And we are stilt more 
abundantly encouraged by the testimony of these who 
have acknowledged from their own experience, that 
sincere prayer was no hindrance to their studies , they 
have, gotten more knowledge sometimes upon their 
knees, than by their labour in perusing a variety of au- 
thors ; and they have left this observation for such as 
follow, Bene ordsse est bene siuduisse, Praying is the 
best studying. 

To conclude, let industry and devotion join together, 
and you need not doubt the happy success ; Prnv. ii. 2. 
"Incline thine ear unto wisdom, apply thine heart to 
understanding ; cry after knowledge, and lift up thy 
voice ; seek her as silver, and search for her as for 
hidden treasures : Then shalt thou understand 
the fear of the Lord," &c. which is " the beginning of 
wisdom." It is " the Lord who gives wisdom, even to 
the simple, and out of his mouth cometh knowledge 
and understanding." 



FIVE METHODS Op IMPROVEMENT, 21 

CHAPTER II, 

Observation, Reading, Instruction by Lectures, 
Conversation, and Study, compared. 

THERE are five eminent means or methods where- 
by the mind is improved in the knowledge of things ; 
and these are observation, reading, instruction by lec- 
tures, conversation, and meditation, which last, in a 
■most peculiar manner, is called study. Let us survey 
the general definitions or descriptions of them all. 

L Observation is the notice that we take of all oc- 
currences in human life, whether they are sensible or 
intellectual, whether relating to persons or things, to 
ourselves or others. It is this that furnishes us, even 
from our infancy, with a rich variety of ideas and pro- 
positions, words and phrases ; it is by this we know that 
Ike will burn, that the sun gives light, that a horse eats 
grass, that an acorn produces an oak, that man is a 
being capable of reasoning and discourse, that our judg- 
ment is weak, that our mistakes are many, that our 
sorrows are great, that our bodies die and are carried 
to the grave, and that one generation succeeds another. 
All those things which we see, which we hear or feel, 
which we perceive by sense or consciousness, or which 
we know in a direct manner, with scarce any exercise 
of ouv reflecting faculties or our reasoning powers, may 
be included under the general name of observation. 

When this observation relates to anv thing that im- 
mediately concerns ourselves, and of which we are 
conscious, it may be called experience. So I am said 
to know or experience that I have in myself a power 
of thinking, fearing, loving, &c. That I have appetites 
and passions working in me, and many personal oc- 
currences have attended me in this life. 

Observation therefore includes all that Mr. Locke 
means by sensation and reflection. 

When we are searching out the nature or properties 
of any being by various methods of trial ; or when we 
apply some active powers, or set some causes to work, 
to observe what effects they would produce, this sort 
of observation is called experiment. So when I throw 
a bullet into w.ter, I find it sinks ; and when I throw 
the same bullet into quicksilver, I see it swims ; but if 



%% THE FIVE METHODS 

I beat out this bullet into a thin hollow shape, like a 
dish, then it will swim in the water too. So when I 
strike two flints together,! find they produce fire ; when 
I throw a seed into the earth, it grows up into a plant. 
All these belong to the first method of knowledge, 
•which I shall call observation. 

II. Reading is that means or method of knowledge, 
whereby " we acquaint ourselves with what other men. 
have written, or published to the world in their wri- 
tings." These arts of reading and writing are of in- 
finite advantage j for by them' we are made partakers 
of the sentiments, observations, reasonings, and im- 
provements, of all the learned world, in the most re- 
mote nations, and in former ages, almost from the be-, 
ginning of" mankind, 

III. Public or private lectures are such " verbal in- 
structions as are given by a teacher while the learners 
attend in silence." This is the way of learning religion, 
from the pulpit, or of philosophy or theology from the 
professor s chair, or of mathematics by a teacher shew-, 
mg us various theorems or problems, i. e. speculations 
or practices by demonstration and operation, with all 
the instruments of art necessary to those operations. 

IV. Conversation is another method of improving 
our minds, wherein " by mutual discourse and inquiry 
We learn the sentiments cf others, as well as communi- 
cate our sentiments to others in the same manner." 
Sometimes indeed, though both parties speak by turns, 
yet the advantage is only on one side; as, when a 
teacher and a learner meet and discourse together; 
but frequently the profit is mutual. Under this head 
of conversation, we may also rank disputes of various 
kinds. 

V. Meditation or study includes all those " exercises 
of the mind, wherebv we render all the former methods 
useful, for our increase in true knowledge and wis- 
dom." It is by meditation we come to confirm our 
memory of things that pass through our thoughts in the 
occurrences of life, in our own experiences, and in the 
observations we make ; it is by meditation that we draw 
various inferences, and establish in our minds general 
principles of knowledge. It is by meditation that we 
compare the various ideas which we derive from our 
senses, or from the operations of our souls, and join 
them in propositions. It is by meditation that we int. 



&W IMPROVEMENT COMPARED. 23 

in our memory whatsoever we learn, and form our own 
judgment of the truth or falsehood, the strength or 
weakness of what others speak or write. It is medita- 
tion or study that draws out long chains of argument, 
and searches and finds deep andTdifiicult truths, which 
before lay concealed in darkness. 

It would be a needless thing to prove that our own 
solitary meditations, together with the few observa- 
tions that th° most part of mankind are capable of 
making, are not sufficient of themselves, to lead us in- 
to die attainment of any considerable proportion of 
knowledge, at least in an age sc much improved as 
ours is, without the assistance 01 conversation and 
reading, and other proper instructions that are to be 
attained in our days. Yet each of these five methods 
have their peculiar advantages, whereby they assist 
each other; and their peculiar defects, which have 
peed to be supplied by the other's assistance. Let us 
trace over some of the particular advantages of each. 

I. One method of improving the mind, is observa- 
tion, and the advantages of it are these : 

1. It is owing to observation that our - ' mind is fur- 
nished with the first simple and complex ideas.'* It is 
this laysffce ground work and foundation of all knowl- 
edge, and makes us capable of using any of the other 
methods for improving the mind ; for if we did not atr 
tain a variety of sensible and intellectual ideas by the 
sensations of outward objects, by the consciousness of 
our own appetites and passions, pleasures and pains, 
and by inward experience of the actings of our own 
spirits, it would be impossible either for men or books 
to teach us any thing. It is observation that must give 
us our first ideas of things, as it includes in it sense and 
consciousness. 

2. All our knowledge derived from observation, 
whether it be Of single ideas or of propositions, is knowl- 
edge gotten at first hand. Hereby we see and know 
things as they are, or as they aprjear to us; we_ take 
the impressions of them on our minds from the original 
objects themselves, which give a clearer and stronger 
conception of things ; these ideas are more lively, and 
the propositions (at least in many cases) are much more 
evident. Whereas, what knowledge we derive from 
lectures, reading and conversation, is but the copy of 



£4 THE FIVE METHODS 

other men's ideas, that is, the picture of a picture ; and 
it is one remove further from the original. 

3. Another advantage of observation is, that we 
may gain know ledge all the day long, and every moment 
of our lives, and every moment of our existence we may 
be adding something 'to our intellectual treasures there- 
by, except only while we are asleep ; and even then 
the remembrance of our dreaming will teach us some 
truths, and lay a foundation for a better acquaintance 
with human nature, both in the powers and in the 
frailties of it. 

II. The next way of impoving the mind is by read- 
ing, and the advantages of it are such as these : 

1. By reading we acquaint ourselves in a very ex- 
tensive manner " with the affairs, actions, and thoughts 
of the living and the dead, in the most remote nations, 
and most distant ages ;" and that with as much ease 
as though they lived in our own age and nation. By 
reading of books, we may learn something from all parts 
of mankind ; whereas by observation, we learn all from 
ourselves, and only what comes within our own direct 
cognizance ; by conversation we can only enjoy the as- 
sistance of a very few persons, viz. those who are near 
us, and live at the same time when we do, that is, our 
neighbours and contemporaries ; but our knowledge is 
much more narrowed still, if we confine ourselves 
merely to our own solitary reasonings, without much 
observation or reading. For then ail our improvement 
must arise only from our own inward powers and 
meditations. 

2. By reading we learn not only the actions and 
sentiments of different nations and ages, but we transfer 
to ourselves the knowledge and improvements of the 
"mostlearned men,the wisest and the best of mankind," 
when or wheresoever they lived: For though many 
books have been written by weak and injudicious per- 
sons, yet the most of those books which have obtained 
great reputation in the world, are the products of great 
and wise men in their several ages and nations ; where- 
as we can obtain the conversation and instruction of 
those only who at e within the reach of our dwellings, or 
our acquaintance, whether they are wise or unwise; and 
sometimes that narrow sphere scarce affords any per- 
son of great eminence in wisdom or learning, unless our 
instructor happen tc have this character* And as for 



OS IMPROVEMENT COMPAHEP. 2*3 

our own study and meditations, even when we arrive at 
some good degrees of learning, our advantage for fur- ■_ 
ther improvement in knowledge by them is still far 
more contracted than what we may derive from reading. 

3. When we read good authors, we learn * ; the 
best, the most laboured, and most refined sentiments 
even of those wise and learned men ; 5> for they have 
studied hard, and have committed to writing their ma- 
turest thoughts, and the result of their long study and 
experience; whereas by conversation, and in some 
lectures, we obtain, many times, only the present 
thoughts of our tutors or friends, which (though they 
may be bright and useful) yet, at first, perhaps, may 
be sudden and indigested, and are mere hints which, 
have risen to no maturity. 

4. It is another advantage of reading, that we may 
u review what we have read ;" we may consult the 
page again and again, and meditate on it at successive 
seasons in our serenest and retired hoiirs,having'the book 
always at hand ; but what we obtain by conversation 
and in lectures is oftentimes lost again as soon as the 
company breaks up, or at least when the day vanishes ; 
unless we happen to have the talent of a good memory, 
or quickly retire and note down what remarakables 
we have found in those discourses. A.nd for the same 
reason, and for the want of retiring and writing, many 
a learned imn has lost several useful meditations of 
his own. and could never recal them again. 

III. The advantages of verbal instructions by public 
or private lectures are these : 

1. There is something: more sprightly, more de- 
lightful and entertaining in the living discourse of a 
wise -earned, and well qualified teacher, than there is 
in the silent and sedentary practice of reading. The 
very turn of voice, tne good pronunciation, and the po- 
lite and a luring manner which some teachers have 
attained, will engage the attention, keep the soul fixed, 
and convey and "in sinuate into the mind the ideas of 
things in a more lively and forcible way, than the mere 
reading of books in the silence and retirement of the 
closet. 

2. A tutor or instructer when he paraphrases and 
explains other authors, can "mark out the precise 
point of difficulty o" controversy," and unfold it. He 
can shew you which, paragraphs are of greatest im- 



26 THE FIVE MFTHODS 

portance, and which are of less moment. He can teaeh 
his hearers what authors, or what parts of an author, 
are best worth reading on any particular subject; and ' 
thus save his disciples much time and pains, by short- \ 
ening the labours of their closet and private studies, i 
He can shew you what were the doctrines of the an- | 
cients in a compendium, which perhaps would cost | 
much labour and the perusal of many books to attain, i 
He can inform you what new doctrines or sentiments | 
are arising in the world., before they come to be public ; | 
as well as acquaint you with his own private thoughts, 
and his own experiments and observations, which never 
were, and perhaps never will be published to the world, 
and yet may be very valuable and useful 

3. A living instructer can convey to our senses those 
notions with which he would furnish cur minds* when 
he teaches us natural philosophy, or most parts of 

. mathematical learning. He can make the experiments 
before our eyes. He can describe figures and diagrams, 
point to the lines and angles, and make out the de- 
monstration in a more intelligible manner by sensible 
means, which cannot so well be done by mere reading, 
even though we should have the same figures lying in 
a book before our eyes. A living teacher, therefore, 
is a most necessary help in these studies. 

I might add also, that even where the subject of dis- 
course is moral, logical, or rhetorical, &c. and which 
does not directly come under the notice of our senses, 
a tutor may explain his ideas by such familiar exam- 
ples, and plain or simple similitudes, as seldom find 
place in books and writings. 

4. When an instructer in his lectures delivers any 
matter of difficulty, or expresses himself in such a 
manner as seems obscure so that you do not take up 
his ideas clearly or fully, y -i u have opportunity , at least 
when the lecture is finished, or at other proper sea- 
sons, to inquire how such a sentence should be 'nder- 
stood, or how such a difficulty may be explained and 
removed. 

If there be permission given to free converse with 
the tutor, either in the midst of the lecture, or rather 
at the end of it, concerning any doubts or difficulties 
that occur to the hearer, this brings it very near to 
conversation or discourse. 



OF IMPROVEMNT COMPARED. 27 

IV. Conversation is the next method of improve- 
ment, and it is attended with the following advantages : 

1. When we converse familiarly with a learned 
friend, we have his own help at hand to explain to us 
every word and sentiment that seems obscure in his 
discourse, and to inform us of his whole meaning, so 
that we are in much less danger of mistaking his sense ; 
whereas in books, whatsoever is really obscure, may 
also abide always obscure without remedy, Since the 
author is not at hand, that we may inquire his sense. 

If we mistake the meaning of our friend in conver- 
sation, we are quickly set right again ; but in reading 
we many times go on in the same mistake, and are not 
capable of recovering ourselves from it Thence it 
comes to pass that we have so inanv contests in all 
ages about the meaning of ancient authors, and espe- 
cially the sacred writers. Happy should we be, could 
we but converse with Moses, Isaiah, and St.. Paul, and 
consult the prophets and apostles, when we meet with, 
a difficult text! But that glorious conversation is re- 
served for the ages of future blessedness 

2. When we are discoursing upon any theme with 
a friend, we may propose our doubts and objections a- 
gainst his sentiments, and have them solved and an- 
swered at once. The difficulties that arise in our 
minds may be removed by one enlightening word of 
our correspondent ; whereas in reading, if a difficulty 
or question arise in our thoughts which the author has 
not happened to mention, we must be content without 
a present answer or solution of it. Books cannot speak. 

3. Not only the doubts which arise in the mind upon 
any subject of discourse are easily proposed and solved 
in conversation, but the very difficulties we meet with 
in books and in our private studies may find a relief 
by friendly conference. We may pore upon a knotty 
point in solitary meditation many months without a so- 
lution, because perhaps we have gotten into a wrong 
track of thought ; and our labour (while we are pursu- 
ing a false scent) is not only useless and unsuccessful, 
but it leads us perhaps into a long train of error, for 
want of being corrected in the first step- But if we 
note dov/n this difficulty when we road it, we may pro- 
pose it to an ingenious correspondent when we see 
him ; we may be relieved in a moment, and find the 
difficulty vanish : He beholds the object perhaps in i\ 



28 THE FIVE METH©BS 

different view, sets it before us in quite another light, 
leads us at once into evidence and truth, and that with 
a delightful surprise. 

4. Conversation calls out into light what has been | 
lodged in all the recesses and secret chambers of the I 
soul; by occasional hints and incidents, it brings old 
useful notions into remembrance; it unfolds and dis- 
plays the hidden treasures of knowledge, with which 
reading, observation, and study, had before furnished 
the mind. By mutual discourse the soul is awakened 
and allured to bring forth its hoards of knowledge, and 
it learns how to render them most useful to mankind. 
A man of vast reading, without conversation, is like a 
miser wiio lives only to himself. 

5. In free and friendly conversation, our intellectual 
powers are more animated, and our spirits act with a 
superior vigour in the quest and pursuit of unknown 
truths. There is a sharpness and sagacity of thought 
that attends conversation, beyond what we find whilst 
shut up reading and musing in our retirements. Our 
souls may be serene in solitude, but not sparkling, though 
perhaps we are employed in reading the works of the 
brightest writers. Often has it happened in free dis- 
course, that new thoughts are strangely struck out, and 
the seeds of truth sparkle and blaze through the com- 
pany, which in calm and silent reading would never 
have been excited. By conversation you will both give 
and receive this benefit ; as flints when put into motion 
and striking against each other, produce living fire on 
both sides, which would never have arisen from the same 
hard materials in a state of rest. 

6. In geuerous conversation, amongst ingenious and 
learned men, we have a great advantage of proposing 
our private opinions, and of bringing our own sentiments 
to the test, and learning in a more compendious and a 
safer way what the world will judge of them, how man- 
kind will receive them, what objections may be raised 
against them, what defects there are in our scheme, and 
how to correct our own mistakes; which advantages 
are not so easy to be obtained bv our own private medi- 
tations ; for the pleasure we take in our own notions, 
and the passion of sett-love, as well as the narrowness 
of our views, tempt us to pass too favourable an opinion 
on our own schemes ; whereas the variety of genius in 



oar XMJfK.07jaia.iswi' wmrAHJbi)* ^u 

our several associates, will give happy notices how our 
opinions will stand in the view of mankind. 

7. It is also another considerable advantage of con- 
versation, that it furnishes the student with the knowledge 
of men and the affairs of life, as reading furnishes him 
with book learning. A man who dwells all his days a- 
mong books, may have amassed together a vast heap 
of notions; but he may be a mere scholar, which is a 
contemptible sort of character in the world, A hermit, 
who has been shut up in his cell in a college, has contrac- 
ted a sort of mould and rust upon his soui, and all his airs 
of behaviour have a certain awkwardness in them ; but 
these awkward airs are worn away by degrees in com- 
pany ; the rust and the mould are filed and brushed off 
by polite conversation. The scholar now becomes a citi- 
zen or a gentleman, a neighbour and a friend ; he learns 
how to dress his sentiments in the fairest colours, as well 
as to set them in the strongest light. Thus he brings 
out his notions with honour, he makes some use of them 
in the world, and improves the theory by the practice. 
But before we proceed too far in finishing a bright 
character by conversation, we should consider that 
something else is necessary besides an acquaintance with 
men and books ; and therefore I add, 

V. Mere lectures, reading, and conversation, with- 
out thinking, are not sufficient to make a man of knowl- 
edge, and wisdom. It is our own thought and reflection, 
study and meditation, must attend all the other methods 
of improvement, and perfect them; It carries these 
advantages with it : 

1. Though observation and instruction, reading and 
conversation, may furnish us with many ideas or men 
and things, yet it is our own meditation, and the labour 
of our own thoughts, that must form our judgment of 
things. Our own thoughts should join cr disjoin these 
ideas in a proposition for ourselves ; it is our own mind 
that must judge for ourselves concerning the agreement 
or disagreement of ideas, and form propositions of truth 
out of them. Reading and conversation may acquaint 
us with many truths, and with many arguments to sup- 
port them ; but it is our own study and reasoning that 
must determine whether these propositions are true, 
and whether these arguments are just and solid. 

It ii confessed there are a thousand things which our 
eyes have not seen, and which would never coorie withal 
D 



30 FIVE METHODS OE OlPItOVEMENT, 

the reach of our personal and immediate knowledge and 
observation, because of the distance of times and places ; 
these must be known by consulting other persons, and. 
that is done either in their writings or in their discours- 
es. But after all, let this be a fixed point with us, that 
it is our own reflection and judgment must determine 
how fir we should receive that which books or men in- 
form us of, and how far they are worthy of our assent 
and credit. 

2. It is meditation and study that transfers and con- 
veys the notions wnd sentiments of others to ourselves, 
so as to make them properly our own. It is our own 
judgment upon them as well as our memory of them, 
that makes them become our own property. It does as 
it were concoct our intellectual food, and turns it into a 
part of ourselves ; just as a man may call his limbs and 
his flesh his own, whether he borrowed the materials 
from the ox or the sheep, from the lark or the lobster ; 
whether he derived it from corn or milk, the fruits of 
the trees, or the herbs and roots of the earth ; it is all 
now become one substance with himself, and he wields 
and manages those muscles and limbs for his own proper 
purposes, wnich once were the substance of other an- 
imals or vegetables; that very substance which last week 
was grazing in the field, or swimming in the sea, waving 
in the milk pail, or growing in the garden, is now be- 
come part of the man. 

3. By study and meditation we improve the hints that 
we have acquired by observation, conversation, and 
reading ; we take more time in thinking, and by the la- 
bour of the mind we penetrate deeper into the themes 
of knowledge, and carry our thoughts sometimes much 
farther on many subjects, than we ever met with, either 
in the books of the dead, or discourses of the living. It 
is our own reasoning that draws out one truth from an- 
other, and forms a whole scheme or science, from a few 
hints which we borrowed elsewhere. 

By a survey of these things we may justly conclude, 
that he who spends all his time in hearing lectures, or 
poring upon books, without observation, meditation, or 
converse, will have but a mere historical knowledge of 
learning, and be able only to tell what others have known 
Or said on the subject; he that lets all his time flew away 
in conversation, without due observation, reading or 
study, will gain but a slight and superficial knowledge, 



I RULES ON OBSERVATION. 31 

which will be in danger of vanishing with the voice of 
the speaker ; and he that confines himself merely to 
his closet, and his own narrow observation of things, and 
is taught only by his own solitary til :ughts, without in- 
struction by lectures, reading;, or free conversation, will 
be in danger of a narrow spirit, a vain conceit if himself, 
and an unreasonable contempt of others; and alter all, 
he will obtain but a very limited and imperfect view and 
knowledge of things, and he will seldom learn how to 
make that knowledge useful. 

These five methods of improvement should be pursu- 
ed jointly, and go hand in hand, where our circumstan- 
ces are so happy as to find opportunity and conveniency 
to enjov them all ^though I must give my opinion that 
two of them, viz. reading and meditation, should employ 
much m re of our time, than public lectures or conver- 
sation and discourse. As for observation, we may be 
always acquiring knowledge that way, whether we are 
alone or in company. 

But it will be for cur further improvement, if we go 
over all these five methods of obtaining know ledge more 
distinctly and more at large, and see what special ad- 
vances in useful science we may draw from them ail* 



CHAP. III. 
Rules relating to Observation. 

THOUGH observation, in the strict sense of the 
word, and as it is distinguished from meditation and 
stud}', is the first means of improvement, and in its 
strictest sense does not include in it any reasonings of 
the mind, upon the things which we observe, or infer- 
ences drawn from them ; yet the motions of the mind 
are so exceedingly swift, that it is hardly possible for a 
thinking mar, to gain experiences or observations, with- 
out making some secret and short reflections upon them; 
and therefore, in giving a few directions cone rning 
this method of improvement, I shall not so narrowly 
confine myself to the first mere impression of objects on 
the mind by observation ; but include also *ome hints 
which relate to the first, most easy, and obvious reflec- 
tions or reasonings which arise from tiiern. 



32 RULES RELATING 

I. Let the enlargement of your knowledge be one 
constant view and design in life ; since there is no time 
or place, no transactions, occurrences or engagements in 
life, which excludes us from this method of improving 
the mind. When we are alone, even in darkness and 
silence, we may converse with our own hearts, observe 
the working of our own spirits, and reflect upon the in- 
ward motions of our own passions in some of the latest 
occurrences in life ; we may acquaint ourselves with the 
powers and properties, the tendencies and inclinations 
of both body and spirit, and gain a more intimate 
knowledge of ourselves. When we are in company, 
we may discover something more of human nature, of 
human passions and follies, and of human affairs, vices 
ana virtues, by conversing with mankind and observing 
their conduct. Nor is there any thing more valuable 
than the knowledge of ourselves, and the knowledge of 
men, except it be the knowledge of God who made us, 
and our relation to him as our Governour. 

When we are in the house, or the city, wheresoever 
we turn our eyes, we see the works of men ; when we 
are abroad in the country, we behold more of the works 
of God. The skies and the ground above and beneath 
us, may entertain our observation with ten thousand 
varieties. 

Endeavour therefore to derive some instruction, or 
improvement of the mind from every thing which you 
see or hear, from every thing which occurs in human 
life, from every thing within you or without you. 

Fetch down some knowledge from the clouds, the 
stars, the sun, the moon, and the revolutions of all the 
pianets ; dig and draw up some valuable meditations 
from the depths of the earth, and search them through 
the vast oceans of water; extract some intellectual im- 
provements from the minerals and metals; from the 
wonders of nature among the vegetables and herbs, trees 
and flowers. Learn some lessons from the birds and 
the beasts, and the meanest insect. Read the wisdom 
of God, and his admirable contrivance in them al!.-*- 
Read his almighty power, his rich and various goodness, 
in all the works of his hands. 

From the day and the night, the hours and the flying 
minutes learn a wise improvement of time, and be watch- 
ful to sc ize every opportunity to increase in knowledge. 
from the vicissitudes and revolutions of nations an# 



TO OBSERVATION. 33 

families, and from the various occurrences of the world, 
learn the instability of mortal affairs, the uncertainty of 
life, the certainty of death. From a coffin and a funeral, 
learn to meditate upon your own departure. 

From the vices and follies of others, observe what is 
hateful in them ; consider how such a practice looks in 
another person, and remember that it looks as ill or 
worse in yourself. From the virtue of others, learn seme- 
thing worthy of your imitation. 

From the deformity, the distress, or calamity of others 
derive lessons of thankfulness to God, and hymns of 
grateful praise to your Creator, Governor, and Benefac- 
tor, who has formed you in a better mould, and guarded 
you from those evils. Learn also the sacred lesson of 
contentment in your own state, and compassion to your 
neighbour under his miseries. 

From your natural powers,sensations,judgment,mem- 
ory, hands, feet, &c. make this inference, that they were 
not given you for nothing, but for some useful employ- 
ment to the honour of your Maker, and for the good of 
your fellow- creatures, as well as for y cur own best in- 
terest and final happiness. 

From the sorrows, the pains, the sicknesses, and suf- 
ferings that attend you, learn the evil of sin, and the im- 
perfection of your present state. From your own sins 
and follies learn the patience of God toward you, and 
the practice of humility toward God and man. 

Thus from every appearance in nature, and from ev- 
ery occurrence of life, you may derive natural, moral, 
and religious observations to entertain your minds, as 
well as rules of conduct in the affairs relating to this 
life, and that which is to come. 

II. In order to furnish the mind with a rich variety of 
ideas, the laudable curiosity of young people should be 
indulged and gratified rather than discouraged. It is a 
very hopeful sign in young persons, to see them curicus 
in observing, and inquisitive in searching into the great- 
est part of things that occur ; nor should such an inquir- 
ing temper be frowned into silence, nor be rigorously re- 
strained, but should rather be satisfied by proper answers 
given to all those queries. 

For this reason also, where time and fortune allow it, 
young people should be led into company at proper sea- 
sons, should be carried abroad to see the fiuds and the 
Y/oods, and the rivers, the buildings, towns, and cities 
D 2 



34 RULES RELATING 

distant from their own dwelling ; they should be enter- 
tained with the sight of strange birds, beasts, fishes, in- 
sects, vegetables, and productions both of nature and ; 
art of every kind, whether they are the products oi their 1 
own or foreign nations 5 and in due time* where Proyi- ! 
dence gives opportunity, they may travel under a wise i 
inspector or tutor into different parts of the world for 
the same end, that they may bring home treasures of 
usefui knowledge. 

III. Among all these observations, write down what 
is most remarkable and uncommon ; reserve these re- 
marks in store for proper occasions, and at proper sea- 
sons take a review of them. Such a practice wi!l give 
you a habit of useful thinking ; this will secure the work- 
ings of your soul from running to waste, and by this 
means even your looser moments will turn to happy 
account both here and hereafter. And whatever useful 
observations have been made, let them be at least some 
part of the subject of your conversation among your 
friends at next meeting, 

Let the circumstances or situations in life be what or 
where they will, a man should never neglect this im- 
provement which may be derived from observation. 
Let him travel into the East or West- Indies, and fulfil 
the duties of the military or the mercantile life there ; 
Jet him rove through the earth or the seas for his own 
humour as a traveller, or pursue his diversions in what 
part of the world he pleases as a gentleman ; let pros- 
perous or adverse fortune call him to the most distant 
parts of the globe ; still let him carry on his knowledge 
and the improvement of his soul by wise observations. 
In due time, by this means, he may render himself some 
way useful to "the societies of mankind. 

Theobaldino, in his younger years, visited the for- 
ests of Norway on the account of trade and timber, and 
besides his proper observations on the growth of trees on 
those northern mountains, he learned there was a sort 
of peopJe called Fins, in those confines which border upon 
Sweden, whose habitation is in the woods; and he lived 
atterwards to give a good account of them, and some of 
their customs, to the Royal Society, for the improvement 
of natural knowledge. Puteo'i rtras taken captive in- 
to Turkey in his youth, and travelled with his master in 
their holy pilgrimage to Mecca whereby he became 
more intelligent in the forms. - nohies, and fooleries 



TO OBSERVATION. 85 

of the Mahometan worship, than perhaps ever any Brit- 
on knew before ; and by his manuscripts we are more 
acquainted in this last century with the Turkish sacreds* 
than any one had ever informed us, 

IV. Let us keep our minds as free as possible from 
passions and prejudices, for these will give a wrong turn 
to our observations both on persons and things. The 
eyes of a man in the jaundice make yellow observations 
On every thing ; and the soul tinctured with any pas- 
sion or prejudice, diffuses a false colour over the real 
appearances of things, and disguises many of the com- 
mon occurrences of life ; it never beholds things in a, 
true l'>ht,nor suffers them to appear as they are. When- 
soever, therefore, you would make proper observations* 
let self, with all its influences, stand aside as far as pos- 
sible ; abstract your own interest and your own concern 
from them, and bid all friendships and enmities stand 
aloof and keep out of the way, in the observations that 
you make relating to persons and things. 

If this rule were well obeyed, we should be moch bet- 
ter guarded against those common pieces of misconduct 
in the observations of men, viz. the false judgments of 
pride and envy. How ready is envy to mingle with the 
notices which we take of other persons? How often is 
mankind prone to put an ill sense upon the actions of 
their neighbours, to take a survey of them in an evil po- 
sition, and in an unhappy light? And by this means 
we form a worse opinion of our neighbours than they de- 
serve; while at the same time pride and self flattery 
tempt us to make unjust observations on ourselves in our 
own favour. In all the favourable judgments we pass 
concerning ourselves, we should allow a tittle abatement 
on this account. 

V. In making your observations on persons, take Ca re 
of indulging that busy curiosity which is ever inquiring 
into private and domestic affairs, with an endless itch. 
of learning the secret history of families. It is but sel- 
dom that such a prying curiosity attains any valuable 
end : It often begets suspicions, jealousies, and disturb- 
ances in households, and it is a frequent temptation to 
persons to defame their neighbours. Some persons can- 
not help telling what they know ; a busy body is most 
liable to become a tattler upon every occasion. 

VI. Let your observation, even of persons and their 
conduct, be chiefly designed in oniev to lead yen to a 



26 RULES ON OBSEHVATIOH - . | 

better acquaintance with things, particularly with hu~ t 
man nature > — and to inform you what to imitate and B 
what to avoid, rather than to furnish out matter for the | 
evil passions of the mind, or the impertinences of dis- I 
course, and reproaches of the tongue. j 

VII, Though it may be proper sometimes to make 
your observations concerning persons as well as things, 
the subject of your discourse in learned or useful con- 
versations ; yet what remarks you make on particular 
persons, especially to their disadvantage, should for the 
most part lie hid in your own breast, till some just and 
apparent occasion, some necessary call of Providence, 
leads you to speak to them. 

If the character or conduct which you observe be 

freatly cuipable, it should so much the less be published, 
ou may treasure up such remarks of the follies, inde- 
cencies, or vices of your neighbours, as may be a constant 
guard against your practice of the same, without expos- 
ing the reputation of yGur neighbour on that accuunt. It 
is a good old rule, that our conversation should rather be 
laid out on things than on persons ; and this rule should 
generally be observed, unless names be concealed, where- 
&oever the faults or follies of mankind are our present 
theme. 

Our late Archbishop Tillotson has written a small, but 
excellent discourse on evil speaking, wherein he admi- 
rably explains, limits, ftnd applies that general apostolic 
precept, Sfieak evil of no man. Titus iii. 2, 

VIII. Be not too hasty to erect general theories from 
a few particular observations, appearauces, or experi- 
ments. This is what the logicians call a false induction. 
When general observations are drawn from so many 
particulars as to become certain and indubitable, these 
sre jewels of knowledge, comprehending great treasure 
jn a little room ; but they are therefore to be made with 
the greater care and caution, lest errors become large 
and diffusive, if we should mistake in these general 
Motions. 

A hasty determination of some universal principles, 
without a due survey of all the particular cases which 
may be included in them, is the way to lay a trap for 
our own understandings, in their pursuit of any subject, 
and we shall often be taken captives into mistake and 
falsehood. Niveo in his youth observed, that on three 

QUns&mas days, together there fell a good quantity of 



OF BOOKS AND READING. 3* 

snow, and now hath writ it down in his Almanack as a 
part ot his wise remarks on the weather, that it will al- 
ways snow at Christmas. Euron, a young lad, took no- 
tice ten times, that there was a sharp frost when the 
wind was in the north east, therefore in the middle of last 
July he almost expected it should freeze, because the 
weathercock showed him a north east wind; and he 
was still more disappointed, when he found it a very sul- 
try season. It is the same hasty judgment that hath 
thrown scandal on a whole nation for the sake of some 
culpable characters belonging to several particular na- 
tives of that country ; whereas all the Frenchmen are 
not gay and airy ; all the Italians are not jealous and 
revengeful ; nor are all the English overrun with tb& 
spleen. 



CHAP. IV. 

Of Books and Reading, 

I. THE world is full of books, but there are multi- 
tudes which are so ill written, they were never worth 
any man's reading; and there are thousands more 
which may be good in their kind, yet are worth noth- 
ing when the month or year or occasion is past for 
which they were written. Others may be valuable in 
themselves, for some special purpose, or in some pecu- 
liar science, but are not fit to be perused by any but 
those who are engaged in that .particular science or 
business. To what use is it tor a divine, or physician, 
or a tradesman, to read over the huge volumes cf re- 
ports of judged cases in the law? Or for a lawyer to 
(earn Hebrew and read the Rabbins? It is of vast ad- 
vantage for improvement of knowledg ••• and saving 
time, tor a young man to have the most proper books 
for his reading recommended by a judicious friend. 

II. Books of importance of any kind, and especially 
complete treatises on any subject, should be firs, read 
in a more general and cursory manner, to learn a little 
what the treatise promises, and what you may expect 
from the writer's manner and skill. And for this end 
I would advise always that the preface be read, and a 
survey taken of the table of contents, if there lie one, 
before the first survey of the book. By this means you 



38 OF BOOKS AND READING. 

•will not only be better fitted to give the book the firstji 
reading, but yow will be much assisted in your second p 
perusal of it, which should be done with greater atten- '] 
tion and deliberation, and you will learn with more ease |'; 
and readiness what the author pretends to teach. In '(> 
your reading, mark, what is new or unknown to you be' [' 
fore, and review those chapters, pages, or paragraphs. ) 
Unless a reader has an uncommon and most retentive ) 
memory, I may venture to affirm, that there is scarce 
any book or chapter worth reading once that is not 
worthy of a second perusal : At least to take a careful 
review of all the lines or paragraphs which you mark- 
ed, and make a recollection of? the sections "which you 
thought truly valuable. 

There is another reason also why I would choose to 
take a superficial and cursory survey of a book, before 
I sit down to read it, and dwell upon it with studious at- 
tention ; and that is, there may be several difficulties 
in it which we cannot easily understand and conquer 
at the first reading, for want of a luller comprehension 
of the author's whole scheme. And therefore, in such 
treatises, we should not stay till we master every dif- 
ficulty at the first perusal ; for perhaps many of these . 
would appear to b 1 * solved when we have proceeded 
further in that book, or would vanish of themselves up- 
on a second reading, 

What we cannot reach and penetrate at first, may 
be noted down as matter of after consideration and in- 
quiry, if the pages that follow do not happen to strike 
a complete Sight on these which went before. 

III. If three or four persons agree to read the same 
be ok, and each bring his own remarks upon it at some 
set hours appointed for conversation, and they com- 
municate mutually their sentiments on the subject, and 
debate about it in a friendly manner, this practice will 
render the reading any author more abundantly bene- 
ficial to every ore of them. 

IV. If several persons engaged in the same study, 
take into their hands distinct treatises on one subject, 
and appoint a season of communication once a week, 
they may inform each other in a brief manner concern- 
ing the sense, sentiments, and method of those several 
authors, and thereby promote each other's improve- 
ment, either by recommending the perusal of the same 
bock to their companions, or perhaps by satisfying their 



OF BOOKS AJTD READING, 39 

inquiries concerning it by conversation, without every- 
one's perusing it. 

V. Remember that your business in reading or in 
conversation, especially on subjects of natural, moral, 
or divine science, is not merely to know the opinion of 
the author or speaker, for this is but the mere knowledge 
of history ; but your chief business is to consider wheth- 
er their opinions are right or not, and to improve your 
own solid knowledge on that subject by meditation on. 
the themes of theit writing or discourse. Deal freely 
with every author you read, and yield up your assent 
only to evidence and just reasoning on the subject. 

Here I would be understood to speak only of human 
authors, and not of the sacred and inspired writings. In 
these our business is only to find out the true sense and 
understand the true meaning of the paragraph and page, 
and our assent then is bound to follow when we are be- 
fore satisfied that the wilting is divine. Yet I might add 
also that even this is sufficient evidence to demand our 
assent. 

But in the composures of men, remember you are a 
man as well as they ; and it is not their reason but your 
own that is given to guide you when you arrive at years 
of discretion, of manly age and judgment. 

VI. Let this therefore be your practice, especially 
after you have gone through one course of any science 
in your academical studies ; if a writer on that subject 
maintains the same sentiments as you do, yet if he does 
not explain his ideas or prove the positions well, mark 
the faults or defects, and endeavour to do it better, 
either in the margin of your book, or rather in some pa- 
pers of your own, or at least let it be done in your pri- 
vate meditations. — As for instance : 

Where the author is obscure, enlighten him ; where 
he is imperfect, supply his deficiencies ; where he is too 
brief and concise, amplify a little, and set his notions in a 
fairer view ; where ne is redundant, mark those para- 
graphs to be retrenched ; when he trifles and grows im- 
pertinent, abandon those passages or pages; where he 
argues, observe whether his reasons be conclusive ; if 
the conclusion be true, and yet the argument weak, en- 
deavour to confirm it by better proofs ; where he de- 
rives or infers any propositions darkly or doubtfully, 
make the justice of the inference appear, and add fur- 
ther inferences or corollaries, ifsuch occur tavcur mine;; 



40 ©F BOOKS AND READING, 

where you suppose he is in a mistake, propose your ob-J, 
|ections and correct his sentiments ;- what he writes so 
weli as to approve itself to your judgment, both as just] 
and useful, treasure it up in your memory, and count it 
a part or your intellectual gains, 

Note.— Many of these same directions which I have 
now given, may be practised with regard to conversa- 
tion, as well as reading, in order to render it useful in 
the most extensive and lasting manner. 

VII. O.her things also of the like nature may be 
tisetuily practised, with regard to the authors which you j 
read, viz. If the method of a book, be irregular, reduce ' 
it into form by a little analysis of your own, or by hints i 
in the margin;, if.ath.ose things are heaped together i 
which should be separated, you may wisely distinguish 
and divide them ; if several things relating to the same 
subject are scattered up and down separately through 
the treatise, you may bring them all to one view by ref- 
erences ; or if the matter of a book be really valuable 
and deserving, you may throw it into a better method, 
reduce it to a more logical scheme, or abridge it into a 
lesser form ; all these practices will have a tendency 
lo advance your skill both in logic and method, to im- 
prove your judgment in general, and to give you a fuller 
survey of that subject in particular. When you have 
finished the treatise with all your observations upon it, 
recollect and determine what real improvements you 
have made by reading that author. 

VIII. If a book has no index to it, or good table of 
contents, it is very useful to make one as you are read- 
ing it ; not with that exactness as to include the sense 
of every page and paragraph, which should be done if 
you designed to print it; but it is sufficient in your in- 
dex to take notice only of those party of the book which 
arf* new to you, or which you think well written, and 
worthy of your remembrance or review. 

Shall I be so free as to assure »njy younger friends, 
from my own experience, that these methods of read- 
ing will cost some pains in the first years of your study, 
and especially in the first authors which you peruse in 
any science, or on any particular subject ; but the prof- 
it will richly compensate the pains. And in the fol- 
lowing years of life, after you have read a few valua- 
ble books on any special subject in this manner, it will 
be very easy to read others of the same kind, because 



OE BOOKS AND READING, 41 

you will not usually find very much new matter in them 
which you have not already examined. 

IX. If the writer be remarkable for any peculiar ex- 
cellencies or defects in his style or manner of writing, 
make just observations upon this also ; and whatsoever 
ornaments you find there, or whatsoever blemishes oc- 
cur ia the language or manner of the writer, you may 
make just remarks upon them. And remember, that 
one book read over in this manner, with all this labori- 
ous meditation, will tend more to enrich your under- 
standing, than the skimming over the surface of twenty 
authors. 

X. By perusing books in the manner I have de- 
scribed, you will make all your reading subservient, not 
only to the enlargement of your treasures of knowledge, 
but also to the improvement of your reasoning powers. 

There are many who read with constancy and dili? 
gence, and yet make no advances in true knowledge 
by it. They are delighted with the notions which they 
read or hear, as they would be with stories that are 
told, but they do not weigh them in their minds as in a 
just balance, in order to determine their truth or false- 
hood ; they make no observations upon them, or infer- 
ences from them. Perhaps their eye slides over the 
pages, or the words slide over their ears, and vanish 
like a rhapsody of evening tales, or the shadows of a 
cloud flying over a green held in a summer's day. 

Or if they review them sufficiently, to fix them in 
their remembrance, it is merely with the design to tell 
the tale over again, and show what men of learning 
they are. Thus they dream out their days in a course 
of reading without real advantage. As a man may be 
eating all clay, and for want of digestion is never nour- 
ished ; so these endless readers may cram themselves, 
in vain with intellectual food, and without real improve-i 
ment of their minds, for want of digesting it by proper 
reflections. 

XL Be diligent therefore in observing these direc- 
tions: Enter into the sense and arguments of the au- 
thors you read, examine all their proofs, and then judge 
of the truth or falsehood of their opinions ; and thereby 
you shall not only gain a rich increase of your under- 
standing, by those truths which the author teaches, 
when you see them well supported, but you shall ac- 
quire also bv degrees, an habit ofjud^in? justly, and of 
" E 



42 OF BOOKS AND EEABING, 

reasoning well, in imitation of the good writer whose-! 
works you peruse. j 

This' is laborious indeed, and the mind is backward 
to undergo the fatigue of weighing every argument and 
tracing every thing to its original. It is much less la- 
bour to take all things upon trust ; believing is much 
easier than arguins:. But when Stu-aentio had once 
persuaded his mind to tie itself down to this method 
which I have prescribed, he sensibly gained an admi- 
rable facility to read, and judge of wliat he read, by 
his daily practice of it, ana the man made large advan- 
ces in the pursuit of truth ; while Plumbinus and Plu- 
meo made less progress in knowledge, though they had 
read over more folios. Plumeo skimmed over the pa- 
ges like a swallow over the flowery meads in May, 
Plumbinus read every line and syllable, but did not give 
himself the trouble of thinking and judging about them. 
They both could boast in company of their great read- 
ing, for they knew more titles and pages than Studen- 
tio, but were far less acquainted with science. 

I confess those whose reading is designed only to fit 
them for much talk and little knoxvledge, may content 
themselves to run over their authors in such a sudden 
and trifling way; they may devour libraries in this 
manner, yet be poor reasoners at last, and have no sol- 
id wisdom or true learning. The traveller who walks 
ou fair and softly in a course that points right, and ex- 
amines every turning before he ventures upon it, will 
come sooner and safer to his journey's end, than he who 
runs through every lane he meets, though he gallops 
full speed all the day. The man of much reading and 
a large retentive memory, but without meditation, may 
become in the sense of the world 'a knowing man ; and 
if he converse much with the ancients, he may attain 
the fame of learning too; but he spends his days afar 
off from wisdom and true judgment, and possesses very 
little of the substantial riches of the mind. 

XII. Never apply yourselves to read any human au- 
thor with a determination before hand either for or a- 
gainst him, or with a settled resolution to believe or 
disbelieve, to confirm or to oppose whatsoever he saith ; 
but always read with a design to lay your mind open 
to truth, and to embrace it wheresoever you find it, as 
well as to reject every falsehood, though it appear un- 
der ever so fair a disguise, Hon- unhappy are those Hiea 



OF BOOKS AND READING, 43 

who seldom take an author into their hands but they 
have determined before they begin whether they will 
like or dislike him I They have got some notion of his 
name, his character, his party, or his principles, by 
general con versaiion, or perhaps by some slight view 
of a tew pages; and having all their own opinions ad- 
justed beforehand, they read all that he writes with a 
prepossession either for or against him. Unhappy 
those who hunt and purvey for a party, and scrape to- 
gether out of every author, ail those things, and those 
only, which favour their own tenets, while they despise 
and neglect all the rest. 

XIII. Yet take this caution. I would not be under- 
stood here as though I persuaded a person to live with- 
out any settled principles at all, by which to judge of 
men, and books, and things ; or that I would keep a 
man always dcuh.mg about his foundations. The chief 
things that I design in this advice are these three : 

1. That alter our most necessary and important prin- 
ciples of science, prudence, and religion, are settled up- 
on good grounds, with regard to our present conduct 
and our future hopes, we should read with a just freedom 
of thought all those books which treat of such >ubjects 
as may admit of doubt and reasonable dispute. Nor 
should any of our opinions be so resoh ed upon, especially 
in younger years, as never to hear or to bear an opposi^ 
tion to them. 

2. When we peruse those authors who defend our 
own settled sentiments, we should not take all their ar- 
guments for just and solid; but we should make a wise 
distinction between the corn and the chaff", between solid 
reasoning and the mere superficial colours «f it ; nor 
should we readily swallow down all their lesser opinions, 
because we agree with them in the greater. 

3. That when we read those authors which oppose 
our mosi. certain and established principles, we should 
be ready to receive any inlormatu ns from them in other 
points, and not abandon at once -very thing they say, 
though we are well fixed in our opposition to their main 
point of arguing. 

Fas est, et ah hoste doceri Virg. 

Seize upon truth where'er 'tis found, 
Amongst your friends, amongst your foes, 

On Christian or on Heathen ground ; 
The flower's divine v here'er it grows : 
Neglect the prickles, and assume the rase. 



44 OF JS'OOKS AND RBADINGe 

XIV. What I have said hitherto on this subject re- 
lating to books and reading, must be chiefly understood |i 
of that sort of books, and those hours of our reading and J 1 
study whereby we design to improve the intellectual r 
powers of the mind with natural, moral, or divine know- £ 
ledge. As for those treatises which are written to direct 
or to enforce and persuade our practice, there is one thing 
further necessary ; and that is, that when our consci- ! 
ences are convinced that these rules of prudence or duty 
oelong to us, and require our conformity to them, we 
should then call ourselves to account, and inquire se- 
' riously whether we have put them in practice or not ; 
we should dwell upon the arguments, and impress the 
motives and methods of persuasion upon our own hearts, 
till we feel the force and power of them inclining us to 
the practice of the things which are there recommended. 
If folly or vice be represented in its open colours, or its 
secret disguises, let us search our hearts, and review our 
lives, and inquire how far we are criminal : Nor should 
we ever think we have done with the treatise till we feel 
ourselves in sorrow for our past misconduct, and aspir- 
ing after a victory over those vices, or till we find a 
cure of those foliies begun to be wrought upon our souls. 
In all our studies and pursuits of knowledge, let us 
remember that virtue and vice, sin and holiness, and the 
conformation of our hearts and lives to the duties of true 
religion and morality, are things of far more consequence 
than all the furniture of our understanding, and the rich- 
est treasures of mere speculative knowledge ; and that 
because they have a more immediate and effectual influ- 
ence upoQ our eternal felicity or eternal sorrow. 

XV. There is yet another sort of books, of which it is 
proper I should say something while I am treating on 
this subject ; and these are, history, poesy, travels, books 
of diversion or amusement; among which we may rec- 
kon also, little common pamphlets, newspapers, or such 
Jike ; for many of these I confess once reading may be 
sufficient, where there is a tolerable good memory. 

Or when several persons are in company, and one 
reads to the rest such sort of writings, once hearing may 
be sufficient, provide d tha f every one be so attentive, 
and so free, as to make their occasional remarks on such 
lines or sentences, such periods or paragraphs, as in 
their opinion deserve it. Now all those paragraphs or 
sentiments deserve a remark, which are new and un~ 
common, are noble and excellent for the matter of them. 



OF BOQKS AND READING. 45 

are strong and convincing for the argument contained in 
them, are beautiful and eiegant for the language or the 
manner, or any way worthy of is second rehearsal ; and 
I at the request of any of the company, let these para- 
graphs be read over again. 

Such parts also of these writings as may happen to he 
remarkably stupid or silly, faise or mistaken, should 
become subjects of an occasional ciiticism, made by 
some of the company ; and this may give occasion to the 
repetition of them for the confirmation of the censure,, 
for amusement or diversion. 

Still let it be remembered, that where the historical 
narration is of considerable moment, where the poesy, 
oratory, &c. shine with some degrees of perfection and 
glory, a single reading is neither sufficient to satisfy a 
mind that has a true taste for this sort of writings, nor 
can we make the fullest and best improvement ot them 
without proper reviews, and that in our retirement as 
well as in company. Who is there that has any gout 
for polite writings, that would be sufficiently satisfied 
with hearing the beautiful pages of Sceele or Addison, 
the admirable descriptions of Virgil or Milton, or some of 
the finest poems of Pope, Young, or Dryden, once read 
over to them, and then lay them by forever? 

XVI. Among these writings of the latter kind, we 
may justly reckon short miscellaneous essays on all man- 
ner of subjects ; such as the Occasional Papers,, the Tat- 
lers, the Spectators, and some other books that have 
been compiled out of the weekly or daily products of 
the press, wherein are contained a great number of 
bright thoughts, ingenious remarks, and admirable ob- 
servations, which have had a considerable share in fur- 
nishing the present age with knowledge and politeness. 

I wish every paper among these writings could have 
been recommended both as innocent and useful. 1 wish 
every unseemly idea, and wanton expression had beer. 
banished from "amongst them, and every trifling page 
had been excluded from the company of the rest when 
they had been bound up in volumes. But it is not to be 
expected, in so imperfect a state, that every page or 
piece ot such mixed public papers should be entirely 
blameless and laudable. Yet in the mam it must be con- 
fessed, there is so much virtue, prudence, iugenuity and 
goodness in them, especially in eight volumes of Specta- 
tors, there is such a reverence of things sacred, so many 
E 2 



46 OF BOOKS AND HEADING. 

valuable remarks for our conduct in life, that they are 
not improper to lie in- parlours, or summer houses, or 
places of usuaL residence, to entertain our thoughts in 
any moments of leisure, or vacant hours that occur. 
There is such a discovery of the follies, iniquities, and 
fashionable vices of mankind contained in them, that v i 
we may learn much of the humours and madnesses of ' 
the age, and the public world* in our own solitary retire-? I 
ment, without the danger cf frequenting vicious com- 
pany, or receiving the mortal infection. 

XVII. Among other books which are proper and re- j 
cmisite, in order to improve our knowledge in general, 
or our acquaintance with any particular science, it is 
necessary that we should be furnished with Vocabula- 
ries and Dictionaries of several sorts, vi?s. of common 
words, idioms, aud phrases, in order to explain their 
sense ; of technical words or the terms of art, to show 
their use in aits and sciences; of names of men, coun- 
tries, towns, rivers, &c. which are called historical and 
geographical dictionaries, &c. These are to be consult- 
ed and used upon every occasion ; and never let an un- 
known word pass in your reading, without seeking for 
Its sense and meaning in some of these writers. 

If such books are not at hand, you must supply the 
want of them, as well as you can, by consulting such as 
can inform you ; and it is useful to note down the mat- 
ters of doubt aud inquiry in some pocket book, and take 
the first opportunity to get them resolved, either by per- 
sons or books, when we meet with them. 

XVIII. Be not satisfied with a mere knowledge of 
the best authors that treat cf any subject, instead of ac- 
quainting yourselves thoroughly with the subject itself, 
There is many a young student that is fond ot enlarging 
his knowledge of books, aud he contents himself with 
the notice he has of their title page, which is the attain- 
ment of a bookseller rather than a scholar. Such per- 
sons are under a great temptation to practise these two 
follies. (1.) To heap up a great number of books, at a 
greater expense than most of them can bear, and to fur- 
nish their libraries infinitely better than their understand- 
ings. And (2.) when they have guten such rich treas- 
ures of knowledge upon their shelves, they imagine 
themselves men of learning, and take a pride in talking 
of the names cf famous authors, and the subjects of 
which they treat, without any real improvement of their 
own minds in true science or wisdom. At best, their 



JUDGMENT OF BQOXf, 47 

learning reaches no farther than the indexes and tables 
of contents, while they know not how to judge or reason 
concerning the matters contained in those authors. 

Ai}d indeed how many volumes of learning soever a 
nun/ possesses, he is still deplorably poor in his under- 
standing, till he has made those several parts of learn- 
ing his own property, by reading and reasoning, by 
2 udging for himself, and remembering what he has read. 

CHAP. V. 
Judgment of Books, 

I, IF we would form a judgment of a book which 
we have not seen before, the tirst thing that offers is 
the title page, and we may sometimes guess a little at 
the import and design of a book thereby ; though it 
must be confessed that titles are often deceitful, and 
promise more than the book performs. The author's 
name, if it be known in the world, may help us to con- 
jecture at the performance a little more, and lead us 
to guess in what manner it is done. A perusal of the 
preface or introduction (which I before recommended) 
may further assist our judgment; and if there be an in- 
dex of the contents, it will give us still some advancing 
light. 

If we have not leisure or inclination to read over the 
book itself regularly, then by the titles of chapters we 
may be directed to peruse several particular chapters 
or sections, and observe whether there be any thing val- 
uable or important in them. We shall find hereby, 
whether the author explains his ideas clearly, whether 
he reasons strongly, whether he methodizes well, 
whether his thoughts and sense be manly , and his man- 
ner polite; or, on the other hand, whether he be ob- 
scure, weak, trifling and confused ; or finally, whether 
the matter may not be solid and substantial, though the 
style and manner be rude and disagreeable. 

II. By having run through several chapters and 
sections in this manner, we may generally judge wheth- 
er the treatise be worth a complete perusal or not. But 
if by such an occasional survey of some chapters, our 
expectation be utterly discouraged, we may well lay 
aside that book ; tor there is great probability he can 



48 JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. 

be but an indifferent writer on that subject, if he affords 
but one prize to divers blanks, and it may be some 
downright blots too. The piece can hardly be valuable, 
if, in seven or eight chapters which we peruse, there 
be but little truth, evidence, force of reasoning, beauty, 
and ingenuity of thought, &e. mingled with much er- 
ror, iguorance, impertinence, dullness, mean and com- 
mon thoughts, inaccuracy, sophistry, railing, &c. Life 
is too short, and time is too precious, to read every new 
book quite over, in order to find that it is not worth 
reading. 

III. There are some general mistakes which per- 
sons are frequently guilty of in passing a judgment on 
the books which they read. 

One is this ; when a treatise is written but tolerably 
well, we are ready to pass a favourable judgment of it, 
and sometimes to exalt its character far beyond its 
merit, if it agree with our own principles, and support 
the opinions of our party. On the other hand, if the 
author be of different sentiments, and espouse contrary 
principles, we can find neither wit nor reason, trood 
sense nor good language in it. Whereas, alas! if our 
opinions of things were certain and infallible truth, yet 
a silly author may draw his pen in the defence of them, 
and he may attack even gross errors with feeble and 
ridiculous arguments. Truth in this world is not al- 
ways attended and supported by the wisest and safest 
methods ; and error, though it can never be maintain- 
ed by just reasoning, yet may be artfully covered and 
defended; an ingen ous writer may put excellent col- 
ours upon his own mistake?. Some Socinians who deny 
the atonement of Christ, have written well, and with 
much appearance of argument for their own unscriptu- 
ral sentiments, and some writers for the Trinity and 
satisfaction of Christ, hive exposed themselves and the 
sacred doctrine, by their feeble and foolish manner of 
handling it. Books are never to be judged of merely by 
their subject, or the opinion th^y represent, but by the 
justness ol their sentiments, the beauty of their manner, 
the force of their expression ; or the strength of reason, 
and th.- weight of just and proper argument which ap- 
pears in them. 

But this tolly and weakness of trifling instead of argu- 
ing does not happen to fall only to the share of Christian 
writers; there are some who have taken the pen ia 



JUDGMENT 01' £00SS. 49 

hand to support the deistical or antichristian scheme of 
our days, who make big pretences to reason upon all 
'! occasions, but seem to have left it all behind them when 
1 they are jesting with the Bible, and grinning at the books 
I which we call sacred. Some of these performances 
would scarce have been thought tolerable if they had 
not assaulted the Christian faith, though they are now 
grown'up to a place amongst the admired pens. I much 
question whether several of the rhapsodies called the 
Characteristics, would ever have survived the first edi- 
tion, if they had not discovered so strong a tincture of 
infidelity, and now and then cast out a profane sneer at 
cur holy religion. I have sometimes indeed been ready 
to wonder how a book in the main so loosely written, 
should ever obtain so many readers among men of sense. 
Surely they must be conscious iu the perusal, that some- 
times a patrician may write as idle as a man of plebeian 
rank, and trifle as much as an old schoolman, though it 
is in another form. I am forced to say, there are few 
books that ever I read, which made any pretences to a 
great genius, from which I derived so little valuable 
knowledge as from these treatises. There is indeed 
amongst them a lively pertness, a parade of literature, 
and much of what some folks now-a-days call politeness, 
but it is hard that we should be bound to admire all 
the reveries of this author, under the penalty of being 
unfashionable. 

IV. Another mistake which some persons fail into is 
this : When they read a treatise on a subject with which 
they have but little acquaintance, they find almost eve- 
ry thing new and strange to them, their understandings 
are greatly entertained and improved by the occurrence 
of many things which were unknown to them before, 
they admire the treatise, and commend the author at 
once ; whereas if they had but aUained a good degree 
of skill in that science, perhaps they would find that 
the author had written very poorly, that neither his 
sense nor his method was just and proper, and that he 
had nothing in him but what was verycommon or trivial 
in his discourses on that subject. 

Hence it comes to pass that Cario and Faber, who 
were both bred up to labour, and unacquainted with 
the sciences, shall admire one of the weekly papers, or 
a little pamphlet, that talks pertly on some critical 
or learned theme, because the matter is all strange and 



I 



50 JUDGMENT OE BOOR » 

new to them, and they join to extol the writer to tl 
skies ; arid tor me same reason a young academic sh? lrl 
dwell upon a^burnal or an Observator that treats 
trade and politics in a dictatorial style, and shad 
lavish in the praise of the author; while at the same tinrl 
persons well skilled in those different subjects he£i 
the impertinent tattle with a just contempt ; for tn«' 
know how weak and awkward many of those little 
minutive discourses are ; and that tho^e very papers 
scienc, politics or trade, which were so much admiral! 
by the ignorant, are perhaps but very mean perform!" 
ances ; though it must also be confessed there are som(l 
excellent essays in those papers, and that upon science! 
as well as trade, 

V. But there is a danger of mistake in our judgmen 
of books on the other hand also ; for when we hav 
jnade ourselves masters of any particular theme ot'y 
knowledge, and surveyed it long on all sides, there i J 
perhaps scarce any writer on that subject who muc" 
entertains and pleases us afterwards, because we find' 
little or nothing new in him ; and yet in a true judg-|J 
ment perhaps his sentiments are most proper and just/ 
his explication clear, and his reasonings strong, and all 
the parts of tile discourse are well connected and set in 
a happy light ; but we knew most of those things be- 
fore, and therefore they strike us not, and we are in 
danger of discommending them. 

Thus the earned and the unlearned have their sev- 
eral distinct dai geis and prejudices ready to attend 
them in their judgment of the writings of men. These 
which I have mentioned are a specimen of them, and 
indeed bat a mere specimen ; for the prejudices that 
warp our judgment aside trom truth are almost infinite 
and endless. 

VI. Yet I cannot forbear to point out two or three 
more of these follies, that I may attempt something to- 
wards the correction of them, or at least to guard others 
against thern. 

There are some persons of a forward and lively tern- 
per, and who are fond to intermeddle with all appear- 
ances cf knowledge, will give their judgment on a book 
sa soon as the title of it is mentioned, for they would not 
willingly seem ignorant of any thing that others know. 
And especially if they happen to have any superior 
character or possessions of this word, they fancy they 



JTrUGKESTT OF COOKS. 51 

have a right to talk freely upon every thing that stirs 
or appears, though, tlu-y have no other pretence to this 
freedom. Divito is wu-th forty thousand pounds : Poli- 
tulus is a fine young g ntieuian, who sparkles in all the 
shining things of dress and equipage : Aulinus is a small 
attendant on a minister of state, and is at court almost 
every day. These three happened to meet in a visit, 
where an excellent book of warm and refined devotions 
lay in the window : What dull stuff is here ? said Divi- 
to; I never read so much nonstnse in one page in my 
life, nor would I give a shilling for a thousand such trea- 
tises. Aulinus, though a courtier, and not used to 
speak roughly, yet would not aliow there was a line of 
good sense in the book, and pronounced him a madman 
that wrote it in his secret retirement, md declared hind 
a fool that published it atter his death. Politulus had 
more manners than to dift' r from men of such rank and 
character, and therefore he sneered at the devout ex- 
pressions as he heard them read, and made the divine 
treatise a matter of scorn and ridicule ; and yet it was 
well known that neither this fine gentleman, nor the 
ccurtier, nor the man of wealth, had a giain of devotion 
in them beyond their horses that waited at the door 
with their gitded chariots. But this is the way of the 
world ; blind men will talk of the beauty of colours, and 
of the harmony or disproportion of figures in painting ; 
the deaf will prate of discords in music; and those who 
have nothing to do with religion will arraign the best 
treatise on divine subjects, though they do not understand 
the jvery language of the scripture, nor the common 
terms or phrases used in Christianity. 

VII. I might here name another sort of judges, who 
will set themselves up to decide in favour of an author, 
or wili pronounce him a mere blunderer, according to 
the company they have kept, and the judgment they 
have heard passed upon a book by others of their own 
stamp or size, though they have no knowledge or table 
oj the subject themselves. These with a fluent and vol- 
uble tongue become mere echoes of the praises or cen- 
sures of other men Sonidus happened to be in the 
room where the three gentlemen "just mentioned gave 
cut their thoughts so freely upon an admirable book of 
devotion; and two days afterwards he met with some 
fiends ; f his where this book was the subject of conver- 
sation and praise. Sonilius wondered at their dulness, 



52' JUDGMENT OE BOOKS. 

and repeated the jests which he had heard cast upon, 
the weakness of the author. His knowledge of the boolj 
and his decision upon it was all from hearsay, for he had 1 
never seen it, and if he had read it through he had n<f 
manner of right to judge about the things of religion, 
having no more knowledge or taste of any thing of inward 
piety, than a hedgehog or a bear has of politeness. 

When I had written these remarks, Probus, whi 
knew all the four gentlemen, wished they might have ai 
opportunity to read their own character as it is repre-f 
sented here. Alas ! Probus, I fear it would do them very 
little good, though it may guard others against their fol> 
ly f for there is never a one of them would find their ow if 
name in these characters if they read them, though al 
their acquaintance would acknowledge the features im- 
mediately, and see the persons almost alive in the picture 

VIII. There is yet another mischievous principle 
which prevails among some persons in passing a judg 
ment on the writings of others, and that is, when from 
the secret stimulations of vanity, pride or envy, they desl 
pise a valuable book, and throw contempt upon it bjj 
wholesale ; and if you ask them the reason of their se-! 
vere censure, they will tell you perhaps that they have; 
found a mistake or two in it, or there are a few senti 
ments or expressions not suited to their tooth and hu- 
mor. Bavius cries down an admirable treatise of phi 
losophy, and says there is Atheism in it, because there 
are a few sentences that seem to suppose brutes to bf 
mere machines. Under the same influence, Momus 
will not allow Paradise Lost to be a good poem, becausej 
he had read some flat and heavy lines in it, and he 
thought Milton had too much honour done him. It is 3 
paltry humor that inclines a man to rail at any humaif 
performace because it is not absolutely perfect. Horace! 
would give us a better example. 

Sunt delicto tamen quihus nos ignovisse velhnut, 

Nam neque chorda aonum reddit quern xiult manus et mens , 

Ner semper ferret quodcunque minabvtur arcus : _ j 

Varum ubi plura nitent in carmine, non ego panels 

Oflendar maculis, quas aut incuria fudit, 

Aut huinana par urn cavit natura « Hor. de Art. Poet; 

THUS MADE ENGLISH. | 

Be not too rigidly c.nsovious: 

A string may jar in the btst master's hand, j 

And the most skilful archer miss his aim: 

So in a poem elegantly writ 

I will not quarrel with a small mistake. 

Such as our nature's frailty may excuse... 1 .....isf«Jcommff«. 



JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. 53 

This noble translator of Horace, whom I here cite, 
has a very honourable opinion of Homer in the main, yet 
he allows him to be justly censured for some grosser 
spots and blemishes in him. 

For who without aversion ever look'd 
On holy garbage, though by Homer cook'd, 
Whose railing heroes and whose wounded gods 
Make some suspect he snores as well as nods. 

Such wise and just distinctions ought to be made when 
we pass a judgment on mortal things, but envy condemns 
by wholesale. Envy is a cursed plant ; some fibres of it 
are rooted almost in every man's nature, and it works in 
a sly and imperceptible manner, and that even in some 
persons who in the main are men of wisdom and piety. 
They know not how to bear the praises that are given to 
an ingenious author, especially if he be living and of their 
profession, and therefore they will, if possible, find some 
blemish in his writings, that they may nibble and bark 
at it. They will endeavour to diminish the honour of the 
best treatise that has been written on any subject, and 
to render it useless by their censures , rather than suffer 
their envy to lie asleep, and the little mistakes of that 
author to pass unexposed. Perhaps they will commend 
the work in general with a pretended air of candour, but 
pass so many sly and invidious remarks upon it after- 
wards, as shall effectually destroy all their cold and 
formal praises.* 

IX. VVhen a person feels any thing of this invidious 
humour working in him, he may by the following consid- 
eration attempt the correction of it. Let him think 
with himself how many are the beauties of such an au- 
thor whom he censures in comparison of his blemishes, 
and remember that it is a much more honourable and 
good naf.ured thing to find out peculiar beauties than 
faults : True and undisguised candour is a much more 
amiable and divine talent than accusation. Let him re- 
flect again, what an easy matter it is to find a mistake in 
all human authors, who are necessarily fallible and im- 
perfect. 
I confess where an author sets up himself to ridicule 

* I grant when wisdom itself censures a weak and foolish performance, 
it will pass its severe sentence, and yet with an air of candour, if the au- 
thor has any thing valuable in him : But envy will sometimes imitate the 
same favourable airs, in order to make its false cavils appear more just 
and credible, when it has a miud to snarl at some of the brightest per- 
Rmnances of a bvman writer. 

F 



54 JUDGMENT OP BOOKS. 

divine writers and things sacred, and yet assumes an aie jj 
of sovereignty and dictatorship, to exalt and almost deify |j| 
all the Pagan ancients, and cast his scorn upon all the if 
moderns, especially if they do but savour of miracles and I 
the gospel, it is lit the admirers of this author should r 
know, that nature and these ancients are not the same, | 
though some writers always unite them. Reason and 
nature never made these ancient Heathens their stand- \ 
ard, either of art or genius, of writing or heroism. Sir i 
Richard Steele, in his little essay, called the Christian I) 
Hero, has shewn our Saviour and St. Paul in a more glo- [ 
rious and transcendent light, than a Virgil or a Homer p 
could do for their Achilles, Ulysses, or JEneas ; and I 
am persuaded, if Moses and David had not been inspir- 
ed writers, these very men would have ranked them at 
least with Herodotus and Horace, if not given them the > 
superior place. 

But where an author has many beauties consistent 
with virtue, piety and truth, let not little critics exalt 
themselves, and shower down their ill nature upon him 
without bounds or measure ; but rather stretch their [ 
ewn powers of soul till they write a treatise superior to [ 
that which they condemn. This is the noblest and sur- 
est manner of suppressing what they censure' 

A little wit, or a little learning, with a good degree of 
vanity and ill nature, will teach a man to pour out whole 
pages of remark and reproach upon one real or fancied 
mistake of a great and good author ; and this may be 
dressed up by the same talents, and made entertaining 
enough to the world, who loves reproach and scandal ; 
but if the remarker would but once make tlvs attempt, 
and try to outshine the author by writing a better book 
on the same subject, he would soon be convinced of his 
own insufficiency, and perhaps might learn to judge more 
justly and favourably of the performance of other mere, 
A cbbler or a shoemaker may find some little fault with 
the latchet of a shoe that an 'Apelles had painted, and 
perhaps with justice tno ; when the whole figure and 
portraiture is such as pone but Apelles couid paint. Ev- 
ery poor low genius may cavil at what the richest and 
the noblest hath performed ; but it is a sign of envy and 
malice, added to the littleness and poverty of genius, 
when such a cavil becomes a sufficient reason to pro- 
nounce at once against a bright author, and a whole val- 
uable treatise. 



JUDG31EHT OP BOOKS. 55 

X. Another, and that a very frequent fault, in pass- 
ing a judgment upon books, is this, that persons spread 
the same praises or the same reproaches over a whole 
treatise, and all the chapters in it, which are due only 
to some of them. They judge as it were by wholesale, 
without making a due distinction between the several 
parts or sections of the performance ; and this is ready 
to lead those who hear them talk into a dangerous mis- 
take. Floras is a great and just admirer of the late 
Archbishop of Cambray, and mightily commends every 
thing he has written, and will allow no blemish in him ; 
whereas the writings of that excellent man are not alt 
of a piece, nor are those very books of his, which have 
a good number of beautiful and valuable sentiments in 
them, to be recommended throughout, or all at once 
without distinction. There is his demonstration of the 
existence and attributes of God, which has justly gained 
an universal esteem for bringing down some new and 
noble thoughts of the wisdom of the creation to the un- 
derstanding of the unlearned, and they are such as well 
deserve the perusal of the man of science, perhaps as far 
as the 50th section ; but there are many of the following 
sections, which are very weakly written, and some of 
them built upon an enthusiastical and mistaken scheme, 
a-kin to the peculiar opinions of father Malebranche ; 
feuch as sec. 51, 53. That we know the finite, only by 
the ideas of the infinite. Sec. 55, 60. That the superior 
reason in man is God himself acting in him. Sec. 61, 62. 
That the idea of unity cannot be taken from creatures, 
but from God only ; and several of his sections, from 65 
to 68, upon the doctrine of liberty, seem to be inconsist- 
ent. Again, toward the end of his book, he spends more 
time and pains than are needful, in refuting the Epicu- 
rean fancy of aton'S moving eternally through infinite 
changes which might be done effectually in a much 
shorter and better way. 

So in his Posthumous Essays, and his Letters, there 
are many admirable thoughts in practical and experi- 
mental religion, and very beautifu ! and divine sentiments 
on devotion ; but sometimes in large paragraphs, or in 
whole chapters together, you find him in the clouds of 
mystic divinity, and he never descends within the reach 
of common ideas or common sense. 

But remember this also, that there are but few such 
authors as this great man, who talks so very weakly 



56 JDDGMENT OF BOOKS. 



sometimes, and yet in other places is so much superior i 
to the greatest part of writers. \ 

There are other instances of this kind, where men of s 
good sense in the main, set up for judges, but they cany I 
too many of their passions about them, and then, like I 
lovers, they are in rapture at the name of their fair idol ; \ 
they lavish out all their incense upon that shrine, and i 
cannot bear the thought of admitting a blemish in them, \ 

You shall hear Ahisono not onh admire Casimere ot jj 
Poland in his lyrics, as the utmost purity and perfection ! 
of Latin poesy, but he will allow nothing in him to be ex- I 
travagant or fruity, and will vindicate every line; nor il 
Can I much wonder at it when I have heard him pro- 
nounce Lucan the best of the ancient Latins, and idolize 
his very weaknesses and mistakes. I will readily ac- f 
knowledge the Odes of Casimere to have more spirit j 
and force, more magnificence and lire in them, and in i 
twenty places arise to more dignity and beauty, than I j 
could ever meet with in any of our modern potts ; yet I 
am afraid to say, that " Pala sutilis e luce'" has dignity < 
enough in it for a robe made for the Almighty, Lib. 4. i 
Od. 7. 1. 37 ; or that the Man of Virtue in Od 3. 1. 44. , 
under the ruins of heaven and earth, will bear up the 
fragments of the fallen world with a comely wound on 
his shoulders. 

late ruenti 

Subjiciens sua colhi ccelo 
Mundum decoro vulnere fulciet: 
Interque cceli fragmina. 

Yet I must needs confess also, that it is hardly possi- 
ble a man should rise to so exalted and sublime a vein 
of poesv as Casimere, who is not in dauber now and then 
of such extravagancies ; but still they should not be ad- 
mired or defended, if weprete d to pass a just, judgment 
on the writings of the greatest men. 

Milton is a noble genius, and the world agrees to con- 
fess it ; his poem of Paradise Lost is a glorious perform- 
ance, and rivals the most famous pieces of antiquity ; 
but that reader must be deeply prejudiced in favour of 
the poet, who can imagine him equal to himself through 
ail that w rk Neither the sublime sentimen* s, nor dig- 
nity of numbers, nor force or beauty of expression, are 
equally maintained, even in all those parts which re- 
quire grandeur or beauty, force on harmony. I cannot 
but consent to Mr. Dryden's opinion, though I will not 



OJ LIVIIVG INSTE,UC'£IOJVS, &C. 57 

use his words, that for some scores of lines together, 
there is a coldness and flatness, and almost a perfect ab- 
sence of that spirit of poesy which breathes and lives 
and flames in other pages. 

XI. When you hear any person pretending to give 
his judgment of a book, consider with yourself whether 
he be a capable judge, or whether he may not lie under 
some unhappy bias or prejudice for or against it, or 
whether he has made a sufficient inquiry to form his 
justest sentiments upon it. 

Though he be a man of good sense, vet he is incapa- 
ble of passing a true judgment of a particular book, ii he 
be not well acquainted with the subject or which it treats, 
and the manner in which it is written, be it verse or 
prose ; or if he hath not had an opportunity or leisure 
to look sufficiently into the writing itself. 

Again, though he be ever so capable of judging on all 
other accounts, by the knowledge of the subject, and of 
the book itself, yet you are to consider also, whether 
there be any thing in the author, in his manner, in his 
language, in his opinions, and his particular parly, which 
may warp the sentiments of him that judgeth, to think 
well or ill ol the treatise, and to pass too favourable or 
too severe a sentence concerning it. 

If you find that he is either an ur fit judge because of 
his ignorance, or because of his prejudices, his judgment 
cf that book should go for nothing. Philc.giapho is a 
good divine, an us; fui preacher, and an approved ex- 
positor of scripture, but he never had a taste for any of 
the polite learning of the age; he was fond of every 
thing that appeared in a devout dress, but all verse was 
alike to him. He told me last week there was a very 
fine book of poems published on the three Christian 
graces, Faith, Hope and Charity, and a most elegant 
piece of oratory on the four las' things,Death, Judgment, 
Heaven, and Hell. Do you think I shall buy either of 
those books merely on Phibgrapho's re commendation ? 

CHAP. VI. 

Of living Instructions and Lectures^ of Teachers and 

Learners. 

J. THERE are a few prsons cf so penetrating a 

genius, and so just a judgment, as to be capable of learn* 

F 2 



58 OE LIVING INSTRUCTIONS, &C. 

ing the arts and sciences without the assistance of teachers* L 
There is scarce any science so safeiy and so sceedily J 
learned, even by the noblest genius and the best books, 
without a tutor. M's assistance is absolutely necessary jy 
for most persons, and it is very usefui tor all beginners. 
Books are a sort of dumb teachers, they point out the 
way to learning ; but if we labour under any doubt or 'J 
mistake, they cannot answer sudden questions, or H 
explain present doubts and difficulties ; this is properly „ 
the work of a living instructor. r 

II. There are very few tutors who are sufficiently ,« 
furnished with such universal learning, as to sustain all 
the parts and provinces of instruction, The sciences 
are numerous, and many of them lie far wide of each 
other ; and it is best to enjoy the instructions of two or I 
three tutors at least, in order to run through the whole j 
encyclopaedia, or circle of sciences, where it may be ob- [ 
tained; then we may expict that each will teach the i 
few parts of learning which are committed to his care | 
in greater perfection. But where this advantage can- 1 
not be had with convenience, one great man must sup- i 
ply the place of two or three common instructors. 

III. It is not sufficient that instructors be competent- [ 
ly skilled in those sciences which they profess and teach; 
but they should have skill also in the art or method of! 
teaching, and patience in the practice of it. 

It is a great unhappiness indeed, when persons, by a, 
spirit of party, or faction, or interest, or by purchase, 
are set up for tutors, who have neither due knowledge 
of science, nor skill in the way of communication. And, , 
alas ! there are others, who with all their ignorance and i 
insufficiency, have self admiration and effrontery enough , 
to set up themselves ; and the poor pupils fare accord- j 
ingly, and grew lean in their understandings. 

And let it be observed also, there are some very learn- ] 
ed men, who know much themselves, but have not the j 
talent of communicating their own knowledge; or else, 
they are lazy, and will take no pains at it. Either they j 
have an obscure and perplexed way of talking, or they j 
show their learning uselessly, and make a long periphra- i 
sis on every word of the book they explain, or they can- 
not condescend to young beginners, or they run present-; 
ly into the elevated parts of the science, because it gives , 
themselves greater pleasure, or they are soon angry 
and impatient, and cannot bear with a few impertinent j 



OS' LIVXffG INSTRUCTIONS, &C 59 

questions of a young, inquisitive, and sprightly genius ; 
or eise they skim over a science in a very slight and su- 
perficial survey, and never iead their disciples into the 
depths of it- 

IV. A good tutor should have characters and qualifi- 
cations very different from all these. He is such an one 
as boch can and wHl apply himself with diligence and 
concern, and indefatigable patience to effect what he 
undertakes ; to teach his disciples, and see that they 
learn ; to adapt his way and method as near as may be 
to the various dispositions, as well as to the capacities of 
those whom he instructs, and to inquire often into their 
progress and improvement. 

And he should take particular care of his own tem- 
per and conduct, that there be nothing in him or 
about him which may be of ill example ; nothing that 
may savour of a haughty temper, or a mein and sordid 
spirit ; nothing that may expose him to the aversion or 
to the contempt of his scholars, or create a prejudice in 
then minds against him and his instructions ; but if pos- 
sible, he should have so much of a natural candour and 
sweetness mixed with all the improvements of learn- 
ing, as might convey knowledge into the minds oi his 
disciples with a sort of gentle insinuation and sovereign 
delight, and may tempt them into the highest improve- 
ments of their reason by a resisitless and insensible force. 
But I shall have occasion to say more on this subject 
when I come to speak more directly of the methods of 
the communication of knowledge. 

V. The learner should attend with constancy and 
care on all the instructions of his tutor, and if he hap- 
pens to be at any time unavoidably hindered, he must 
endeavour to retrieve the loss by double industry for the 
time to come. He should always recollect and review 
his lectures, read over some other author or authors up- 
on the same subject, confer upon it with his instructor or 
with his associates, and write down the clearest result 
of his present thoughts, reasonings, and inquiries, which 
he may have recourse to hereafter, either to re-examine 
them and to apply them to proper use, or to improve 
them further to his own advantage. 

VI. A student should never satisfy himself with bare 
attendance on the lectures of his tutor, unless he clearly 
takes up his sense and meaning, and understands the 
tiling.; which he xeat&£& A. young disciple should be* 



60 OF LIVING IASTHTTTCTIOA T S, &C. 

have himself so well as to gain the affection and eatji 
of his instructor, thut upon every occasion lie may witfip 
-the utmost freedom ask questions, and talk over hisownM 
sentiments, his doubts and difficulties with him, and in d] 
humble and modest manner, desire the solution of the rn.ro 

VII. Let the learner endeavour to maintain an hon-fl 
Curable opinion of his instructor, and heedfuliy listen tm 
his instructions, as one willing to be led by a more ex-4 
perienced guide ; and though he is not bound to fall in 
with every sentiment of his tutor, yet he should so far! 
comply with him as to resolve upon a just consideration j 1 
of the matter, and try and examine it thoroughly with! 
an honest heart, before he presume to determine against 1 
him. And then it should be dene with great modesty, j 
"with a humble jealousy of himself, and apparent unwil-L 
lingne&s to differ from his tutor if the force of argument 
and truth did not constrain him. 

VJII. It is a frequent and growing folly in our age, 
that pert young disciples soon fancy themselves wiser 
than those who teach them ; at the first view, or upon a! 
very little thought, they can discern the insignificancy, j 
weakness and mistake of what their teacher asserts, j 
The youth of our day, by an early petulancy, and pre- i 
tended liberty of thinking -for themselves, dai'e reject at j 
once, and that with a sort of scorn, all these sentiments! 
and doctrines which their teachers have determined, 
perhaps after long and repeated consideration, after 
years of mature study, careful observation, and much 
prudent experience. 

IX. It is true, teachers and masters are w t infallible, 
nor are they always in the right ; and it must be ac- 
knowledged, it is a matter of some difficulty for younger 
minds to maintain a just and solemn veneration for the 
authority and advice of their parents, and the instruc- 
tions of their tutors, and yet at the same time to secure 
to themselves a just freedom in their own thoughts. We 
are sometimes too ready to imbibe all their sentiments 
without examination if we reverence and love them ; 
or, on the other hand, if we take all freedom to contest 
their opinion?, we are sometimes tempted to cast off 
that love and reverence to their persons which God and 
nature dictate. Youth is ever in danger of these two 
extremes. 

X. Rut I think I may safely conclude thus : Though 
the authority of a teacher must not absolute?'" determine 



6l> LEARNING A LANGUAGE. 61 

the judgment cf his pupil, yet young and raw and unex- 
perienced learners should pay all proper deference that 
can be to the instructions of their parents and teachers, 
short of absolute submission to their dictates. Yet stili 
we must maintain this, that they should never receive 
any opinion into their assent, whether it be conformable 
or contrary to the tutor's mind, without sufficient evi- 
dence of it first given to their own reasoning powers, 



CHAP. VII. 

Of learning a Language. 

THE first thing required in reading an author, or in 
hearing lectures of a tutor, is, that you well understand 
the language in which they write or speak. Living 
languages, or such as the native tongue ot any nation in 
the present age, are more easily learned and taught by 
a few rules and much familiar converse, joined to the 
reading some proper authors. The dead languages are 
such as cease to be spoken in any nation ; and even 
these are more easy to be taught, as far as may be, in 
that method wherein living languages are best learned; 
i. e. partly by rule, and partly by rote or custom. And 
it may not be improper in this place to mention a very 
few directions tor that purpose. 

I. Begin with the most necessary and most general 
observations and rules which belong to that language, 
compiled in the form of a grammar; and these are but 
few in most languages. The regular declensions and 
variations of nouns and verbs should be early and thor- 
oughly learned by heart, together with twenty or thir- 
ty of the plainest and most necessaiy rules of syntax. 

But let it be observed,thai in almost all languages some, 
of the most common nouns and verbs have many irreg- 
ularities in them ; such are the common auxiliary verbs 
to be aid to have, to do and to be done,&c. The com- 
paratives and superlatives of the words gtod, bad, great* 
?nuch> smally liiile % &c. and these should be learned 
among the first rules and variations, because they con- 
tinually occur. 

But as to other words which are less frequent, let but 
few of the anomalies or irregularities of the tongue be 
taught" among the general rules to young beginners* 



62 OF LEARNING A LANGUAGE. 

These will come in afterwards to be learned by advun 
ced scholars, in a way of notes on the rules, as in th 
Latin grammar, called the Oxford grammar, or in Rurif 
diman s notes on his rudiments, &c. Or they may bf 
learned by examples alone, when they do occur ; cr h; 
a larger and more complete system of grammar, w.hicij; 
descends to the more particular forms oi speech ; so, th 
heteroclite nouns of the Latin tongue which are taugh 1 ; 
in the school book called Quce Genus* should not m 
touched in the first learning of the rudiments of tfra| 
tongue. I 

II. As the grammar by which you learn any tongu^j 
should be very short at first, so it must be written in aj 
tongue with which you are well acquainted, and whiclij 
is very familiar to you. Therefore I much prefer thej.j 
common English Accidence (as it is ended) to anyijj 
grammar whatsoever, written in Latin for this end 
The English Accidence has, doubtless, many faults ;,| 
but those editions of it which were primed since the yeai| 
1728, under the correction of a learned professor, are^ 
the best, or the English rudiments of the Latin tongueS 
by that learned North Briton, Mr. Ruddiman, whicnl 
are perhaps the most useful books of this kind which jj 
am acquainted with ; especially bt cause I would noSj 
depart too far from the ancient and common forms of. 
teaching, which several good grammarians have done,r 
to the great detriment of such lads as have been re^ 
moved to other schools. [ 

The tiresome and unreasonable method of learning 
the Latin tongue, by a grammar with Latin rules,woul<£ 
appear.even to those masters who teach it so, in itsprop-^ 
er colours cf absurdity and ridicule, if those very mas j 
tcrs would attempt to learn theChinese or Arabic tongueJ 
by a grammar written in the Chinese or Arabic lan-l 
guage. Mr. Clarke of Hull, has said enough in a fewj 
pages of the preface to his new grammar, 1723, to make, 
that practice appear very irrational and improper ; 
though he has said it in so warm and angry a manner; 
that it has kindled Mr. Ruddiman to write against him, 
and to say what can be said to vindicate a practice! 
which I think is utterly indefensible. 

III. At the same time wh^n you begin the rules, begin 
also the practice. As for instance, when you decline 
musa musje, read and construe the same day, some 
easy Latin author by the help of a tutor > or with same 



OP LEARTXNG A LANGUAGE. 63 

R-igHsh translation; choose such a book whose style is. 
simple, and the subject of discourse very plain, obvious 
and not hard to be understood ; many little books have 
been composed with this view, as Corderius's Colloquies, 
some of Erasmus's little writings, the sayings of the wise 
men of Greece, Cato's Moral Distiches, and the rest 
which are collected at the end of Mr. Rudditnan's En- 
glish Grammar, or the Latin Testament of Castellio's 
translation, which is accounted the purest Latin, 8cc. 
These are very proper upon this occasion, together 
with iEsop's and Phsedrus's Fables, and little stories, 
and. the common and daily affairs of domestic life, writ- 
ten in the Latin tongue. But let the higher poets, and 
orators, and historians, and other writers, whose lan- 
guage is more laboured, and whose sense is more re- 
mote from common life, be rather kept out of sight until 
there be some proficiency made in the language. 

It is strange that masters should teach children so 
early Tully's Epistles, or Orations, or the poems of 
Ovid, or Virgil, whose sense is often difficult to find, 
because of the great transposition of the words ; and 
when they have Found the grammatical sense, they 
have very little use of it, because they have scarce any 
notion of the ideas and designs of the writer, it being so 
remote from the knowledge of a child ; whereas, little 
common stories and colloquies, and the rules of a child's 
behaviour, and such obvious subjects, will much better 
assist the memory of the words - by their acquaintance 
with the things. 

IV. Here it may be useful also to appoint the learn- 
er to get by heart the more common and useful words, 
both nouns and adjectives, pronouns and verbs, out of 
some well formed and judicious" vocabulary. This will 
tumish him with names for the most familiar ideas. 

V. As soon as ever the learner is capable, let the tu- 
tor converse with him in the tongue which is to t>e 
learned, if it be a living language, or if it be Latin, 
■which is the living language of the learned world ; thus 
he will acquaint himself a little with it by rote, as well as 
by rule, and by living practice as well as by reading the 
writings of the dead. For if a child of two years old by 
this method learns to speak his mother tongue, I Mti 
Mire the same method will greatly assist and facilitate 
the learning of any other language to these who are 
fikter. 

VI. Let the chief lessons and the chief exercises of 



€4 OE LEARNING A LANGUAGE, 

schools, v. c. where Latin is used (at least for (he firrJ i 
year or more) be the nouns, verbs, and general rules of- 
syntax, together with a mere translation out of some! 
Latin author into English ; and let scholars be employe] 
ed and examined by their teacher, daily, in reducing 



the words to their original or theme, to the first case 
nouns or first tense of verbs, and giving an account 



3 



their formations and changes, their syntax and depend!,, 
encies, which is called parsing. This is a most usefii, 
exercise to lead boys into a complete and thorougl 
knowledge of what they are doing. 

The English translations which the learner has made 
should be well corrected by the master, and then the) 
should be translated back again for the next day's exer 
cise, by the child, into Latin, while the Latin author ii 
withheld from him ; but he should have the Latin word 
given him in their first case and tense, and should neve:, 
be left to seek them himself from a dictionary ; and tm 
nearer he translates it to the words of the author whenq,| 
he derives his English, the more should the child WJ 
commended. Thus will he gain skill in two language^ 
at once. I think Mr. Clarke has done good service w 
the public by his translations of Latin books for thisen(|j 
But let the foolish custom of employing every silly bo^j 
to make themes or declamations, and verses upon moral 
subjects, in a strange tongue, before he understand^ 
common sense, even in his own language, be abandoned 
and cashiered forever. 

VII. As the learner improves let him acquaint him-] 
self with the anomalous words, the irregular declension!) 
of nouns and verbs, the more uncommon connexions o; 
words in syntax, and the exceptions to the general rules 
of grammar ; but let them all be reduced, as far n.% 
possible, to those several original and general rule! 
which he has learned, as the proper rank and place tc| 
which thev belong. 

VIII. While he is doing this, it may be proper for him 
to converse with authors which are a little more diffi-i 
cult, with historians, orators, and poets, &c. but let hit] 
tutor inform him of the Roman or Greek customs whicl 
occur therein. Let the lad then translate some parti 
of them into his mother tongue, or into some other wei ! 
known language, and thence back again into the origi- 
nal language of the author. But let the verse be trans- 
lated into prose, for poesy does not belong to grammar 



OE LEARNING A LANGUAGE. 65 

IX. By this time he will be able to acquaint himself 
with some of the special emphases of speech, and the 
peculiar idioms f the tongue. He should be taught also 
the special beauties and ornaments of the language ; and 
this may be done partly by the help of authors who 
have collected such idioms and cast them into an easy 
method, and partly by the judicious remarks which his 
instructor may make upon the authors which he reads, 
wheresoever such peculiarities of speech or special el- 
egancies occur. 

X. Though the labour of learning all the lessons by 
heart that are borrowed from poetical authors which 
they construe, is an unjust and unnecessary imposition 
urjon the learner, yet he must take the pains to commit 
to memory the most necessary, if not all the common 
rules of grammar, with an example or two under each 
of them ; and some of the select and most useful periods 
or sentences in the Latin or Greek author which he reads 
may be learned by heart, together with some of the 
choicer lessons out of their poets ; and sometimes whole, 
episodes out of heroic poems, &c. as we'll as whole odes 
among the lyrics, may deserve this honour. 

XI. Let this be always carefully observed, that, the 
learners perfectly understand the sense as well as the 
language of all those rules, lessons, or paragraphs, which 
they attempt to commit to memory. Let the teacher 
possess them of their true meaning, and then the labour 
will become easy and pleasant; whereas to impose on 
a child to get by heart a long scroll of unknown phra- 
ses, or words without any ideas under them, is a piece 
of useless tyranny, a cruel imposition, and a practice fit- 
ter for a jackdaw or a parrot, than for any thing that 
wears the shape of a man. 

XII. And here, I think, I have a fair occasion given 
me to consider that question which has been often de- 
bated in conversation, viz. Whether the teaching of a 
school full of boys to learn Latin by the Heathen poets, 
as Ovid in his Epistles, and the silly fables of his Meta- 
morphoses, Horace, Juvenal, and Martial, in their im- 
pure Odes, Satires, Epigrams, Sec. is so proper and 
agreeable a practice in a Christian country. 

XIII. (i ) I grant the language and style of those 
men who wrote in their own native tongue, must be 
more pure and perfect, in some nice elegancies and pe- 
culiarities, thaa modern writers of ether, nations who 

G 



66 Off LEARNING A LANGUAGE. 

have imitated them ; and it is owned also that the beau- |j 
ties of their poesy may much excel ; but in either of L 
these things bays cannot be supposed to be much im-|i ( 
proved or injured by one or the <ther. 

XIV. (2.) It shall be confessed t; o, that modern poets,'!] 
in every living language, have brought into their worksjj 
so many words,epithets,phrases,and metaphors, from the (J 
Heathen fables and stories of their gods and heroes, tbatq 
in order to understand these modern writers, it is nee-! 
essary to understand something of those ancient follies ; 1 
but it may be answered, that a good dictionary, or such! 
a book as the Pantheon, or history of those Gentile de-j c 
ities, may give sufficient information of those stories, so y 
far as tney are necessary and useful to school boys. 

XV. (3.) I will grant yet further, that lads who are 
designed to make great scholars or divines may, by read- 
ing these Heathen poets, be taught better to understand 
the writings of the ancient fathers against the Heathen 
religion ; and they learn here what ridiculous fooleries 
the Gentile nations believed as the articles of their faith; 
what wretched and foul idolatries they indulged and 
practised as duties of religion, for want of the light 
of divine revelation. But this perhaps may be learned as \, 
well either by the Pantheon, or some other collection, at ^ 
school ; or after they have left the school, they may t 
read what their own inclinations lead them to, and ] 
whatsoever of this kind may be really useful for them. 

XVI. But the great question is, Whether all these ad* j 
vantages which have been mentioned will compensate L 
for the long months and years that are wasted among [ 
their inct edible and trilling romances, their false and \ 
shameful stories ( f the gods and goddesses and their a- { 
mours, and of the lewd heroes and vicious poets of the ij 
He then world ? Can these idle and ridiculous tales be I 
of any real and solid advantage in human life ? Do they ^ 
nut too often defile the mind with vain, mischievous and i 
impure ideas ? Do they not stick long upon the fancy, and j, 
leave an unhappy influence upon youth ? Do they not I 
tincture the i magi nation with folly and vice, very early, j 
and pervert it from all that is good and holy ? 

XVII. Upon die whole survey of things, it is my opin- 
ion, that for almost all boys who learn this tongue, it ( 
would be much safer to be taught Latin poesy (as soon \ 
and as far as they can need it) from those excellent j 
translations of David's Psalms, which are given us by , 



OF LEARNING A LANGUAGE. 67 

Buchanan in the various measures of Horace ; and the 
lower classes had better read Dr. Johnston's translation 
of these Psalms, another elegant writer of the Scots na- 
tion, instead of Ovid's Epistles ; for he has turned the 
same Psalms, perhaps with greater elegance, into ele- 
giac verse, whereof the learned W. Benson, Esq. has 
lately published a noble edition, and I hear that these 
Psalms are honoured with an increasing use in the schools 
of Holland and Scotland. A stanza or a couplet of these 
writers, would now and then stick upon the minds of 
youth* and would furnish them infinitely better with pi- 
ous and moral thoughts, and do something towards mak- 
ing them good men and Christians. 

XVIII. A little book collected from the Psalms of 
both these translators, Buchanan and Johnston, and a 
few other Christian poets, would be of excellent use for 
schools to begin their instructions in Latin poesy ; and I 
am we I assured this would be richly sufficient for all 
all those in lower rank, who never design a learned pro- 
fession, and yet custom has foolishly bound them to learn 
that language. 

But lest it should be thought hard to cast Horace and 
Virgil, Ovid and Juvenal /entirely out of the schools, I 
add, if htre and there a few lyric odes, or pieces of sat- 
ires, or some episodes of heroic verse, with here and 
there an epigram of Martial, all which shall be pure and 
clear from the stains of vice and impiety, and which may 
inspire the mind with noble sentiments, fire the fancy 
with bright and warm ideas, or te?ch lessons of morality 
and prudence, were chosen out of those ancient Roman 
writers for the use of the schools, and were collected 
and printed in one moderate volume, or two at the most, 
it wuuld be abundantly sufficient provision out of the 
Roman poets for the instruction of boys in all that is 
nece ssaiy in that age of life. 

Surely Juvenal himself would not have the face to vin- 
dica e the masters who teach boys his 6th satire, and 
many paragraphs of se veral others, when he himself 
has charged us, 

Nil dictu fcedwn, visuque hocc limina tqngat 

Intra qua; puer est. Sat. 14. 

Suffer no lewdness, nor indecent speech, 

Th' apartment of the tender youth to reach Dryden. 

Thus far in answer to the forgoing question. But I 
retire; for Mr. Clark, of Hull, in his treatise on Edu* 



♦33 OE LEARNING A LANGUAGE. 

cation, and Mr. Phillips, preceptor to the Duke of Cum-i 
berland, have given more excellent directions for leani 
ing Latin. 

XIX. When a language is learned, if it be of any use 
at all, it is a pity it should be forgotten again. It is prop- 1 , 
er, therefore, to take all just opportumes to read some-f 
thing frequently in that language, when other nt* cessa-i 
ry and important studies will give you leave. As in 
learning any tongue, dictionaries which contain words 
and phrases should be always at hand, so they should j 
be ever kept within reach by persons who would re- J 
member a tongue which they have learned. Nor should^ 
we at any time content ourselves with a doubtful guess ^ 
at the sense or meaning of any words which occur, but 
consult the dictionary, which may give us certain infor- 
mation, and thus secure us from mistake. It is mere 
sloth which makes us content ourselves with uncertain! 
guesses; and indeed this is neither safe nor useful for 
persons who would learn any language or science, or 
have a desire to retain what they have acquired. 

XX. When you have learned one or many languages! 
ever so perfectly, take heed of priding yourself in these j 
acquisitions ; they are but mere treasures of words, or i 
instruments of true and solid knowledge ; and whose | 
Chief design is to lead us into an acquaintance with,' 
things,or to enable us the more easily to convey those ideas i 
or that knowledge to others. An acquaintance with the ' 
various tongues is nothing else but a relief against the I 
mischief which the building of Babel introduced ; and | 
were I master of as many languages as were spoken at 
Babel, I shoub make but a poor pretence to true learn- 
ing or knowledge, if 1 had not clear and distinct ideas, 
and useful notions in my head, under the words which 
my tongue could pronounce. Yet so unhappy a thing is 
human nature that this sort of knowledge of sounds and 
syllables, is ready to puff up the mind with vanity, 
more than the most valuable and solid improvements of 
it. The pride of a grammarian, or a critic, generally 
exceeds that of a philosopher* 



KNOWING THE SENSE, &C 69 



CHAP. VIII. 

Of inquiring into the Sense and Meaning of any Wri- 
ter or Speaker, and especially the Sense of the Sa- 
cred Writings. 

IT is a great unhappiness that there is such an am- 
biguity in words and forms of speech, that the same 
sentence may be drawn into different significations ; 
whereby it comes to pass, that it is difficult sometimes 
for the reader exactly to hit upon the ideas which the 
writer or speaker had in his mind. Some of the best 
rules to direct us herein are such as these : 

I. Be well acquainted with the tongue itself, or lan- 
guage wherein the author's mind is expressed. Learn not 
only the true meaning of each word, but the sense 
which those words obtain when placed in such a par- 
ticular situation and order. Acquaint yourself with 
the peculiar power and emphasis of the several modes 
of speech, and the various idioms of the tongue. The 
secondary ideas which custom has superadded to ma- 
ny words, should also be known, as weil as the partic- 
ular and primary meaning of them, if we would un- 
derstand any writer. See Logic, Part I. Chap. 4, 4 3. 

II. Consider the signification of ihose words and phra- 
ses, more especially in the same nation, or near the 
same age in which that writer lived, and in what sense 
they are used by authors of the same nation, opinion, 
sect, party, Sec. 

Upon this account we may learn to interpret several 
phrases of the New Testament out of that version of 
the Hebrew Bible, into Greek, which is called the Sep- 
tuagint ; for though that version be very imperfect 
and defective in many things,yet it seems to me evident, 
that the holy writers of the New Testament made use 
of that version many times in their citation of texts out 
of the Bible. 

III. Compare the words and phrases in one place of 
an author with the same or kindred words and phrases 
used in other places of the same author, which are gen- 
erally called parallel places ; and as one expression 
explains another which is like it. so sometimes a con- 
trary expression will explain its contrary. Remember 

G2 



70 OP KNOWING THE SENSE 

always, that a writer best interprets himself; and a?i 
we believe the Holy Spirit to be the supreme agent iif; 
the writings of the Old Testament and the New, hi 
can best explain himself. Hence the theological rul 
arises, that scripture is the best interpreter of script 
ture ; and therefore Concordances, which shew us pat 4, 
allel places, are of excellent use for interpretation. 

IV. Consider the subject of which the author is treat- 
ing, and by comparing other places where he treats of 
the same subject, you may learn his sense in the place* 1 
which you are reading, though some of the terms'^ 
which he uses in those two places may be very different,j i 

And on the other hand, if the author use the same^ 
words where the subject of which he treats is not justb 
the same, you cannot learn his sense by comparing? 
those two places, though the mere words may seem* 
to agree ; for some authors, when they are treating of 
a quite different subject, may use perhaps the same 
words in a very different sense, as St. Paul does the 
words faith, and law, and righteousness. 

V. Observe the scope and design of the writer ; in- f 
quire into his aim and end in that book, or section, or I 
paragraph, which will help to explain particular sen- j 
tences ; for we suppose a wise and judicious writer di- 5 
rects his expressions generally toward his designed f 
end. l< 

VI. When an author speaks of any subject occasion- I 
ally, let his sense be explained by those places where j: 
he treats of it distinctly and professedly ; where he 
treats of any subject in mystical or metaphorical terms, li 
explain them by other places where he treats of the > 
same subject in terms that are plain and literal ; where 
he speaks in an oratorical, affecting, or persuasive way, 
let this be explained by other places where he treats of I 
the same theme in a doctrinal or instructive way ; j 
where the author speaks more strictly, and particular- 
ly on any theme, it will explain the mere loose and genr 
eral expressions ; where he treats more largely, it will 
explain the shorter hints and brief intimations ; and 
wheresoever he writes more obscurely ,search out some 
more perspicuous passages in the same writer, by which 
to determine the sense of that obscure language. 

VII. Consider not only the person who is introduced 
speaking,but the persons to whom the speech is direct- 
ed, the circumstances of time and place, the temper 



0* WRITERS AND SPEAKERS. Tl 

|and spirit of the speaker, as well as the temper and 
[j spirit of the hearers ; in order to interpret scripture 
;i well, there needs a good acquaintance with the Jewish 
^customs, some knowledge of the ancient Roman and 
I Greek times and manners, which sometimes strike a 
\ strange and surprising light upon passages which be- 
ifore were very obscure. 

VIII. In particular propositions, the sense of an au- 
j thor may be sometimes known by the inferences which 
I he draws from them ; and ail those senses may be ex- 
cluded, which will not allow of that inference. 

Note. This ru!e indeed is not always certain in read- 
ing and interpreting human authors, because they may 
mistake in drawing their inferences ; but in explaining 
j scripture it is a sure rule ; for the sacred and inspired 
writers always make just inferences from their own 
propositions. Yet even in them we must take heed we 
do not mistake an allusion fir an inference, which is 
many times introduced almost in the same manner. 

IX. If it be a matter of controversy, the true sense 
of the author is sometimes known by the objections 
that are brought against it. So we may be well assured, 
the Apostie speaks against our justification in the sight 
of God by our own works of holiness in the 3d, 4th, 
and 5th chapters of the Epistle to the Romans, because 
of the objection brought against him in the beginning of 
the 6th chapter, viz. * What shall we say then $ Shall 
we continue in sin, that grace may abound ?* Which 
objection could never have been raised, if he had been 
proving our justification by our own works of righteous- 
ness. 

X. In matters of dispute take heed of warping the 
sense of the writer to your own opinion, by any latent 
prejudices of self lo\ e and party spirit. It is this reign- 
ing principle of prejudice and party that has given such 
a variety of senses both to the sacred writers and oth- 
ers, which would never have come into the mind of 
the reader, if he had not laboured under some such 
prepossessions. 

XI. For the same reason take heed of the prejudices 
of passion, malice, envy, pride, or opposition to an 
author, whereby you may be easily tempted to put a 
false and invidious sense upon his words. Lay aside 
therefore a carping spirit, and read even an adversary 
with attention and diligence, with an honest design to 



1% Off CONVERSATION AND | 

I 

fmd out his true meaning .; do not snatch at little lapf! 
ses and appearances of mistake, in opposition to hi)' 
declared and avowed meaning ; nor impute any sensi 
•or opinion t«. him which he denies to be his opinion, uiM 
less it be proved by the most p:ain and express lanj 
guage. I 

Lastly, Remember that you treat every author, writ! 
cr, or speaker, just as you yourselves would be willing 
to be treated by otners, who are searching out the mean} 
sng .pi what you write or speak ; .-md maintain upotf 
your spirit an awful sense of the presence of God, who 1 ' 
is the judge of hearts, and will punish those who, by $ 
base and dishonest turn of mind, wilfully pervert the' 
meaning of the sacred writers, or even of common au| 
fchors, under the influence of culpable prejudices. Si # 
Move's Logic. Parr J. Chap 6 \ 3. " Directions con-P 
cerning the Definition of Names/ 5 



CHAP. IX. i 

\\ 

Mules of Improvement by Conversation. II 

t'i 
IF we would improve our minds by conversation^ 

it is a great happiness to be acquainted with persona 

wiser than ourselves. It is a piece of useful advice]^ 

therefore, t<. get the favour of their conversation fre-y 

quently, as far as circumstances will allow; and it 

they happen to be a little reserved, use all obliging!,! 

methods to draw out of them what may increase youra 

own knowledge. |jj 

II. Whatsoever company you are in, waste not the, 
time in trifles and impertinence^ If you spend some| 
hours an.ongst children, talk v.ith them according toj s 
their capacity ; im<rk. the young buddings of infant 1 ) 1 
reason ; observe the d fferent motions and distinct,; 
workings of the animal and the mind, as far as you can- 
discern them ; take notice by what degrees the littleji 
creature grows up to the use cf his reasoning powers,i> 
and what early prejudices beset and endanger his un-J 
derstanding. By this means you will learn how to adM 
dress yourself to children for their benefit, and per-; 
haps you may derive seme useful philosophemes or 
theorems for your own entertainment. 

III, If von happen to be in company with a merchant 



OE PROFITING B¥ IT, US 

jor a sailer, a farmer or a mechanic, a milk-maid or 
ja spinster, lead them into a discourse of the matters 
[of their own peculiar province or profession ; for eve- 
jry one knows, or should know his own business best. 
Jin this sense a common mechanic is wiser than a phi- 
I losopher. By this means you may gain some improver 
jment in knowledge from every one you meet. 
J IV. Confine not yourself always to one sort of com- 
Ipany, or to persons of the same party or opinion, either 
m matters of learning, religion, or the civil life,, lest, if 
iyou should happen to be nursed up or educated in early 
1 mistake, you should be confirmed and established in 
the same mistake, by conversing only with persons of 
the same sentiments. A free and general conversation 
with men of very various countries, and of different 
j parties, opinions and practices, (so far as it may be 
i done safely) is of excellent use to undeceive us in many 
wrong judgments which we may have framed, and to 
| lead us into juster thoughts. It is said, when the king 
of Siam,near China, first conversed with some Europe- 
an merchants, who sought the favour of trading on his 
coast, he inquired of them some of the common ap- 
pearances of summer and winter in their country ; and 
when they told him of water growing so hard in their 
rivers, that men and horses and laden carriages passed 
over it, and that rain sometimes fell down as white and 
as light as feathers, and sometimes almost as hard, as 
stones, he would not believe a word they said ; for ice, 
snow, and hail, were names of things utterly unknown 
to him and to his subjects in that hot climate ; he re- 
nounced all traffic with such shameful liars, and would 
not suffer them to trade with his people. See here the 
natural effects of gross ignorance. 

Conversation with foreigners on various occasions has 
a happy influence to enlarge our minds, and to set them 
free from any errors and gross prejudices we are ready 
to imbibe concerning them. Domicillus has never tra- 
velled five miles from his mother's chimney, and he 
imagines all outlandish men are papishes, 'and wor- 
ship notning but a cross. Tvtirus, the shepherd, was 
bred up all his life in the country, and never saw Rome % 
he fancied it to be only a huge village, and was there- 
fore infinitely surprised to find such palaces, such 
streets, such glittering treasures and gay magnificence 
as his first journey to the city shewed him, and with 



74 OF CONVERSATION AND 

wonder he confesses his folly and mistake. So Virgfj 
Introduces a poor shepherd : 



Urbem quam dictmt Romam, Melibcee, putavi 
Stultus ego huic nostras similem, quo scepe solemus 
Pastures avium teneros depellere Jceivs, zxc. 

THUS ENGLISHED : 

Fool that I was, I thought imperial Rome 

Like market towns, where once a week we come, 

And thither drive our tender iambs from home. 



; 



Conversation would have given Tytirus a better nc 
'ion of Rome, though he had never happened to travd 
thither. 

V. In mixed company, among acquaintance an 
strangers, endeavour to learn something from all. B!j 
swift to hear, but be cautious of your tongue, lest yof 
betray your ignorance, and perhaps offend some of thosf i 
who are present too. The scripture severely censuref 
those who speak evil of the things which they kno\ 
not. Acquaint yourself therefore sometimes with per 
sons and. parties which are far distant from your comij 
mon life and customs; this is a way whereby you maf; 
form a wiser opinion of men and things. Prove at [ 
things, and hold fast that which is good, is a diving 
rule, and it comes from the Father of light and truth!! 
But young persons should practice it indeed with dur 
limitation, and under the eye of their elders. 

VI. Be not frightened nor provoked at opinions difl 
ferent from your own Some persons are so confident 1 
they are in the right, that they will not come with uj 
the hearing of any notions but their own ; they canton 1 
out to themselves a little province in the intellectual 
world, where they fancy the light shines, and all thff 
rest is in darkness. They never venture into the ocean* 
of knowledge, nor survey the riches of other minds^ 
which are as solid, and as useful., and perhaps are finely 
gold than what they ever possessed Let not men im-J 
agine there is no certain truth but in the sciences which;'; 
they study, and amongst that party in which they were 1 
born and educated. 

VII. Believe th* j t it is possible to learn something:/ 
from persons much below yourself. We are all shortf 
sighted creatures ; our views are also narrow and Kris*! 
ited ; we often see but one side of a matter, and do not 
extend our sight far and wide enough to reach every 



OF PROFITING BY IT. 75 

jthing that has a connexion with the thing we talk of; 
le see bur in part, and know but in part; therefore it 
is no wonder we form not light conclusions, because we 
do not survey the whole of any subject or argument. 
Even the proudest admirer of his own parts might find 
it useful to consult with others, though of inferior ca- 
ipacity and penetration. We have a different prospect 
of the same thing, if I may so speak, according to the 
(different position of our understandings towards it; a 
weaker man may sometimes light on notions which 
jjiave escaped a wiser, and which the wiser man might 
jpbake a happy use of, if he would condescend to take 
notice of them. 

i ; VIII. It is of considerable advantage, when we are 
t pursuing any difficult point of knowledge, to have a so- 
^tietv of ingenious correspondents at hand, to whom we 
j'may propose it ; for every man has something of a dif- 
ferent genius and a various turn of mind, whereby the 
) subject proposed will be shown in all its lights, it will 
be represented in all its forms, and every side of it be 
turned to view, that a juster judgment may be framed* 
IX. To make conversation more valuable, and use- 
ful, whether it be in a designed or accidental visit, a- 
mong persons of the same or of different sexes, after 
the necessary salutations are finished, and the stream 
of common talk begins to hesitate, or runs fiat and low, 
let some one person take a book which may be agree- 
able to the whole company, and by common consent let 
him read in it ten lines, or a paragraph or two, or a few 
pages, till some word or sentence gives an occasion for 
any of the company to offer a thought or two relating 
to that subject. Interruption of the reader should be 
[no blame, for conversation is the business ; whether it 
jbe to confirm what the author says, or to improve it, 
to enlarge upon or to correct it, to object against it, or 
to ask any question that is akin to it, and let every one 
that please add his opinion, and promote the conver- 
sation. When the discourse sinks again or diverts to 
trifles, let him that reads pursue the page, and read on 
further,paragraphs or pages,till some occasion be given 
by a word or sentence for a new discourse to be start- 
ed, and that with the utmost ease and freedom. Such 
a method as this would prevent the hours of a visit 
from running all to waste ; and by this means, even a- 
niong scholars, th/y would seldom find occasion for that 



76 OF CON VERS AT roN AtfB 

too just and bitter reflection, *"I have lost rny time i, 
the company of the learned.' , 

By such a practice as this, young ladies may vet 
honourably and agreeably improve their hours; whir 
one applies herself to reading, the others employ thet 
attention even among the various artifices of the needle 
but let all of them make their occasional remarks if 
inquiries. This will guard a great deal of that preciouj 
time from modish trifling, impertinence, or scandari 
which might otherwise afford matter for painful re* 
pentance. J 

Observe this rule in general, whensoever it lies | 
your power to lead the conversation, let it be at 
rected to some profitable point of knowledge or prac 
tice, so far as may be done with decency ; and let nc 
the discourse and the hours be suffered to run loos 
without aim or design ; and when a subject is startet 
pass not hastily to another, before you have brougl 
the present theme of discourse to some tolerable issofG 
or a joint consent to drop it, 

X. Attend with sincere diligence, while any one c 1 
the company is declaring his sense of the question pro; 
posed ; hear the argument with patience, though i 
differ ever so much from your sentiments, for you youtjj 
self are very desirous to be heard with patience bj 
others who differ from you. Let not your thoughts b|| 
active and busy all the while to find out something i 
contradict, and by what means to oppose the speakeij] 
especially in matters that are not brought to an issu^ 
This is a frequent and unhappy temper and practice^ 
You should rather be intent and solicitous to take u| ? 
the mind and meaning of the speaker, zealous to seiz.^ 
and approve all that is true in his discourse ; nor ye^j 
should you want courage to oppose where it is necessaU 
ry; but let your modesty and patience, and a friendlty 
temper, be as conspicuous as your zeal. 

XI. When a man speaks with much freedom aiuf- 
ease, and gives his opinion in the plainest language oj 
common sense, do not presently imagine you shall gaif 3 
nothing by his company Sometimes you will find [ 
person, who, in his conversation or his writings, deliv^ 
ers his thoughts in so plain, so easy, so familiar and per] 
fcpicuous a manner, that you both understand and asserjjj 
tc every tiling he saith, as fast as you read or hear itQ 
hereupon some hearers have been ready to poncltjjjj 



OE PROFITING BY IT. ?7 

jinhaste, 'Surely this man saith none but common things; 
jl knew as much before, or, I could have said all this 
:j myself.' This is a frequent mistake. Pellucido was a 
|j very great genius ; when he spoke in the senate, he was 
j wont to convey his ideas in so simple and happy a man- 
jlner, as to instruct and convince every hearer, and to 
1 enforce the conviction through the whole illustrious as- 

sembly ; and that with so much evidence, that you 
' would have been ready to wonder, that every one who 
; spoke had not said the same things ; but Pellucido was 
| the only man that could do it ; the only speaker who 

had attained this art and honour. Such is the writer 

of whom Horace would say, 

■ ■■ Ut sibi quivis; 

Speret idem ; sudet multum, frustraque laboreS 

Ausus idem. De Art. Poet* 

Smooth be your style, and plain and natural, 

To strike the sons of Wapping or Whitehall. 

"While others think this easy to attain, -\ 

Let them but try, and with their utmost pain, V 

They'll sweat and strive to imitate in vain. J 

XII. If any thing seem dark in the discourse of your 
companion, so that you have not a clear idea of what is 
spoken, endeavour to obtain a clearer conception of it 
by a decent manner of inquiry. Do not charge the 
speaker with obscurity, either in his sense or his words 9 
but entreat his favour to relieve your own want of pen- 
etration, or to add an enlightening word or two, that 
you may take up his whole meaning,, 

If difficulties arise in your mind, and constrain your 
dissent to the things spoken, represent what objections 
some persons would be ready to make against the sen- 
timents of the speaker, without telling him you oppose. 
This manner of address carries something more modest 
and obliging in it, than to appear to raise objections of 
your own by way of contradiction to him that spoke. 

XIII. When you are forced to differ from him who 
delivers his sense on any point, yet agree as far as you 
can, and represent how far you agree ; and if there be 
any room for it, explain the words of the speaker in 
such a sense to which you can in general assent, and so 
agree with him ; or at least by a small addition or al- 
teration of his sentiments shew your own sense of things. 
It is the practice and delight of a candid hearer, ( to 
make it appear how unwilling he is to differ from, hiirn 
that speaks. Let the speaker know that it is nov.-V. 

H 



"7$ OE CONVERSATION ASD 

but truth constrains you to oppose him, and let thai 
difference be always expressed in few, and civil, am. 1 
chosen words, such as may give the least offence. r 

And be careful always to take Solomon's rule witr 
you, and let your correspondent fairly finish his speed j 
before you reply; "for he that answereth a matter be J 
fore he heareth it, it is folly and shame unto him.p 
Prov. xviii. 13. ] 

A little watchfulness, care, and practice in younger 
life, will render all these things more easy, familiar^ 
and natural to you, and will grow into habit. 

XIV. As you should carry about with you a con^ 
stant and sincere sense of your own ignorance, so yoif 
should not be afraid nor ashamed to confess this igno| J 
ranee, by taking all proper opportunities to ask anitf 
inquire for farther information ; whether it be the 
meaning of a word, the nature of a thing, the reasor/ 
of a proposition, the custom of a nation, 8cc. never re{ 
main in ignorance for want of asking. 

Many a person had arrived at some considerable de-l 
g*ree of knowledge, if he had not been full of self conceitj' 
and imagined that he had known enough already, oif 
else was ashamed to let others know that he was un-i 
acquainted with it. God and man are ready to teach,' 
the meek, the humble, and the ignorant; but he that 
fancies himself to know any particular subject well] 
or that will not venture to ask a question about it, suchj^ 
an one will not put himself into the way of improvement| 
by inquiry and diligence. A fool may be u wiser in nisi 
own conceit than ten men who can render a reason/ 1 ! 
and such an one is very likely to be an everlasting fool S 
and perhaps also it is a silly shame which renders his' 
folly incurable. 

Stultorum ilicurata p-udor malus ulcera celat. 

Hot. Epist. 16. Lib. 2. 

IN ENGLISH THU9 : 

If fools have ulcers, and their pride conceal 'era, 
Th*>y must have ulcers still, for none can heal 'em. 

XV. Be not too forward, especially m the younger)! 
part of life, to determine any question in company withy 
an infallible and peremptory sentence, nor speak with' 
assuming airs and with a decisive tone of voice. Afj 
young man in the presence of his elders should rather j 
hear and attend, and weigh the arguments which are ' 



OE PROFITING BY I£. 79 

jj brought for the proof or refutation of any doubtful 
[proposition; and when it is your turn to speak, propose 
jyour thoughts rather in the way of inquiry. By chis 
jjmeans your mind will be kept in a fitter temper to re- 
jceive truth, and you will be more ready to correct and 
',! improve your own sentiments, where you have not been 
too positive in affirming them. But if you have magis- 
terially decided the point, you will find a secret unwil- 
lingness to retract, though you should feel an inward 
1 conviction that you were in the wrong, 

XVI. It is granted, indeed, that a season may hap- 
Ipen, when some be Id pretender to science may assume 
jhaugiy and positive airs, to assert and vindicate a gross 
| and dangerous error, or to renounce and vilify some 
j very important truth ; and if he has a popular talent 
i of talking, and there be no remonstrance made against 
j him, the company may be tempted too easily to give 
j their assent to the impudence and infallibility of the 
presumer. They may imagine a proposition so much 
vilified can never be true; and that a doctrine which is 
so boldly censured and renounced can never be defend- 
ed. Weak minds are too ready to persuade tUem'-e) ves, 
that a man would never talk with so much assurance, 
unless he were certainly in the right, and could well 
maintain and prove what he said. By this means truth 
itself is in danger of being betrayed or lost, if there be 
no opposition made to such a pretending talker. 

Now, in such a case, even a wise and a modest man 
may assume airs too, and x^epel insolence with its own 
weapons. There is a time, as Solomon the wisest of 
men teaches us, when a fool should be answered ac- 
cording to his folly, lest he be wise in his own conceit, 
and lest others too easily yield up their faith and reason 
to his imperious dictates. Courage and positivity are 
never more necessary than on such an occasion. But 
it is good to join some argument with them of real and 
convincing force, and let it be strongly pronounced too. 
When such a resistance is made, you shall find some 
of these bold talkers will draw in their horns, when 
their fierce and feeble pushes against truth and reason 
are repelled with pushing and confidence. It is pity 
indeed that truth should ever need such sort of defen- 
ces ; but we know that a triumphant assurance hath 
sometimes supported gross falsehoods, and a whole 
company have been captivated to error, by thismeans^ 



80 OF CONVERSATION AND 

till some man with equal assurance has rescued theml 
It is a pity that any momentous point of doctrines 
should happen to fall under such reproaches, and rej? 
quire such a mode of vindication ; though if I happen 
to hear it, I ought not to turn my back, and to sneak of?' 
in silence, and leave the truth to lie baffled, bleedir.gj: 
and slain. Yet I must confess, I should be glad to havtii 
no occasion ever given me to fight with any man at* 
this sort of weapons, even though I should be so hap- 1 
py as to silence his insolence, and to obtain an evident, 
victory. ' li 

X*V II. Be not fond of disputing every thing pro an$ 
con, nor indulge yourself to show your talent of attack^ 
ing and defending. A logic which teaches nothing els< 
zs little worth. This temper and practice will lead yov 
just so far out of the way of knowledge, and diver 
your honest inquiry after the truth which is debated cr)3 
sought. In set disputes, every little straw is often laidp 
hold on to support our own' cause ; every thing that can 
Ibe done in any way to give colour to our argument is ad-p 
vanced, and that perhaps with vanity and ostentation y/ 
This puts the mind out of a proper posture to seek andli 
receive the truth. u 

XVIII. Do not bring a warm party spirit into a free}- 
conversation, which is designed for mutual improve- 
ment in the search of truth. Take heed of allowing 
yourself in those self satisfied assurances which keep 
the doors of the understanding barred fast against theji 
admission of any new sentiments. Let your soul be 
ever ready to hearken to further discoveries, from a 
constant and ruling consciousness of our present fallible 
and imperfect state ; and make it appear to your 
friends, that it is no hard task for you to learn and prb- 1 
nounce those little words, I was mistaken, how hardi 
soever it be for the bulk of mankind to pronounce them. J 

XIX. As yf>u may sometimes raise inquiries fori 
your own instruction and improvement, and draw out) 
the learning, wisdom, and fine sentiments of your'; 
friends, who perhaps may be too reserved or modest ;j 
so at other times, if you perceive a person unskilful in! 
the matter of debate, you may, by questions aptly pro- 1 
posed in the Socratic method, lead him into a clearer I 
knowledge of the subject ; then you become his instruct- j 
or in such a manner as may not appear to make your- 
self his superior. ; 



OE PROFITING BY IT. 8 A 

,j XX. Take heed of affecting always to shine in corn- 
s' pany above the rest, and to display the riches ot your 
■jpwn understanding or your oratory, as though you 
| would render yourself admirable to all that are present. 
| This is seldom well taken in polite company; much 
| less should you use such forms of speech as should in- 
i sinuate the ignorance or duiness of those with whom 
| you converse. 

XXI. Though you should not affect to flourish in a 
copious harangue and a diffusive style in company, yet 

j neither should you rudely interrupt and reproach him 
that happens to use it. But when he has done speak- 
ing,reduce his sentiments into a more contracted form; 
not with a show of correcting, but as one who is doubt- 
ful whether you hit upon his true sentiments or not. 

! Thus matters may be brought more easily from a wild 
confusion into a single point, questions may be sooner 
determined, and difficulties more readily removed. 

XXII. Be not so ready to charge ignorance, preju- 
dice, and mistake upon others, as you are to suspect 
yourself of it ; and in order to show how free you are 
from prejudices, learn to bear contradiction with pa- 
tience ; let it be easy to you to hear your own opinion 
strongly opposed, especially in matters which are doubt- 
ful and disputable amongst men of sobriety and virtue, 
Give a patient hearing to arguments on all sides, other- 
wise you give the company occasion to suspect that it 
is not the evidence of truth has led you into this opinion, 
but some laay anticipation of judgment ; some beloved 
presumption, some long and rash possession of a party 
scheme, in which you desire to rest undisturbed. If 
your assent has been established upon just and suffi- 
cient grounds, why should you be afraid to let the truth 
be put to the trial of argument ? 

XXIII. Banish utterly out of all conversation, and 
especially out of ail learned and intellectual conference, 
every thing that tends to provoke passion, or raise a 
fire in the blood. Let no sharp language, no noisy ex- 
clamation, no sarcasms or biting jests, be heard among 
you ; no perverse or invidious consequences be drawn 
from each other's opinions, and imputed to the person ; 
let there be no wilful perversion of another's meaning ; 
no sudden seizure of a lapsed syllable to play upon it, 
nor any abused construction of an innocent mistake; 
suffer not your tongue to insult a modest opponent that 

H2 



%% OF CONVERSATION AND 

begins to yield ; let there be no crowing or triumph ir 
even where there is evident victory on your side. Al| 
these things are enemies to friendship, and the ruin oj( 
free conversation. The impartial search of truth re- 
quires all calmness and serenity, all temper and cai#S 
dor ; mutual instructions can never be attained in thfj; 
midst of passion, pride, and clamor, unless we suppisejii 
in the midst of such a scene, there is a loud and pene^ 
trating lecture read by both sides on the folly andij 
shameful infirmitiesof human nature. 

XXIV. Whensoever therefore any unhappy word} 
shall arise in company that might give you a i easonablej 
disgust, quash the rising resentment, be it ever so just^: 
and command your soul and your tongue into silencej 
lest you cancel the hopes of ail improvement for thai 
hour, and transform the learned conversation into the}* 
mean and vulgar form of reproaches and railing. Thej 
man who began to break the peace in such a society,! 
will fall under the shame and conviction of such a si- 
lent reproof, if he has any thing ingenuous about him,| 
If this should not be sufficient, let a grave admonition,^ 
or a soft and gentle turn of wit, with an air of pleas-j 
antry, give the warm disputer an occasion to stop the| 
progress of his indecent lire, if not to retract the inde- 
cency, and quench the flame. 

XXV. Inure yourself to a candid and obliging man- 
ner in all youi conversation, and acquire the art of 
pleasing address, even when you teach as well as when 
you learn, and when you oppose as well as when you 
assert or prove. This degree of politeness is not to bell 
attained without a diligent attention to such kind of di-'i 
rections as are here laid down, and a frequent exercise \ 
and practice of them. i 

XXVI. If you would know what sort of companions I 
you should select for the cultivation and advantage of \ 
the mind, the general rule is v Choose such as by their I 
brightness of parts, and their diligence in study, or by 
their superior advancement in learning, or peculiar! 
excellency in any art, scis-nce, or^ccomplishment, di- j 
vine or human, may be capable of administering to your ! 
improvement ; and be sure to maintain and keep some i 
due regard to their moral character always, lest while! 
you wander in quest of intellectual gain, you fall intoj 
the contagion of irreligion and vice. Mo wise man 
would venture into a house infected with the plague, 



OB PROFITING BY IT, 83 

|j 

| in order to see the finest collections of any virtuoso in 
I Europe. 

J XXVII. Nor is it every sober person of your ac- 
j quaintance, no, nor every man of bright parts, or rich- 
i| in learning, that is fit to engage in free conversation for 
| the inquiry after truth. Let a person have ever so il- 
| lustrious talents, yet he is not a proper associate for 
■j such a purpose, if he lie under any of the following in- 
firmities ; 

(1 ) If he be exceedingly reserved, and hath either 
| no inclination to discourse, or no tolerable capacity of 
j speech and language for the communication of his 
sentiments, 

(2.) If he be haughty and proud of his knowledge, 
imperious in his airs, and is always fond of imposing 
his sentiments on all the company. 

(3.) If he be positive and dogmatical in his own opin- 
ions, and will dispute to the end ; if he will resist tke 
brightest evidence of truth rather than suffer himself 
to be overcome, or yield to the plainest and strongest 
reasonings. 

(4.) If he be one who always affects to outshine all 
the company, and delights to hear himself talk and 
flourish upon a subject, and make long harangues, while 
the rest must be all silent and attentive. 

(5.) If he be a person of a whiffling and unsteady 
turn of mind, who cannot keep close to a point of con- 
troversy, but wanders from it perpetually, and is al- 
ways solicitous to say something, whether it be perti- 
nent to the question or not. 

(6.) ]f he be fretful and peevish, and given to resent- 
ment upon all occasions ; if he knows not how to bear 
contradiction, or is ready to take things in a wrong 
sense; if he be swift to feel a supposed offence, or to 
imagine himself affronted, and then break out into a 
sudden passion, or retain silent and sullen wrath. 

(7.) If he affect wit on all occasions, and is full of hh 
conceits and puns, quirks or quibbles, jests and repar- 
tees; these may agreeably entertain and animate an 
hour of mirth, but they have no place in the search 
after truth. 

(8.) If he carry always about him a sort of craft,and 
cunning, and disguise, and act rather like a spy than 
a friend Have a care of such a one as will make an ill 
use of freedom in conversation, and immediately charge 



Z4 OF CONVERSATION AND 

heresy upon you, when you happen to differ from those 
sentiments which authority or custom has established. 

In short, you should avoid the man in such select \i 
conversation, who practices anything that is unbecom- a 
ing the character of a sincere, tree, and open searcher M 
after truth. p 

Now, though you may pay all the relative duties of (: 
life to persons of these unhappy qualifications, and treat jc 
them with decency and love, so far as religion and hu- is 
manity oblige you, yet take care of entering into a free p 
debate on matters of truth or falsehood in their com-p r 
pany, and especially about the principles of religion. [< 
I confess, if a person of such a temper happens to p 
judge and talk well on such a subject, you may hear fi 
him with attention, and derive what profit you can ]? 
from his discourse ; but he is by no means to be chosea n 
for a free conference in matters of learning and knowl- If 
edge. J 

XXVIII. While I would persuade you to beware of j 
such persons, and abstain from too much freedom of r 
discourse amongst them, it is very natural to infer that's 
you should watch against the working of these evil b 
qualities in your own breast, jf you happen to be tainted u 
with any of them yourself. Men of learning and inge- jj 
nuity will justly avoid your acquaintance, when they [ 
find such an unhappy and unsocial temper prevail- | 
ing in you. [ 

XXIX. To conclude : When you retire from com- I 
pany, then converse with yourself in solitude, and in- [ 
quire what you have learned for the improvement of ij 
your understanding, or for the rectifying your inciina- | 
fcions, for the increase of your virtues, or the ameliora- 5 
ting your conduct and behaviour in any future parts of \ 
life. If you have seen some of your company candid, 1 
modest and humble in their manner, wise and sagacious, j 
just and pious in their sentiments, polite and graceful, \ 
as well as clear and strong in their expression, and i 
universally acceptable and lovely in their behaviour, j 
endeavour to impress the idea of all these upon your » 
memory, and treasure them up for your imitation. 

XXX. If the laws of reason, decency, and civility, p 
ha\e not been well observed amongst your associates, S 
take notice of those defects for your own improvement ; 
and from every occurrence of this kind, remark some- \ 
thing to imitate or to avoid, in elegant, polite and us^ i 

J 



OF PROFITING BY IT. b5 

fill conversation. Perhaps you will find that some per- 
' sons present have really displeased the company, by 
! an excessive and too visible a desire to please ; 1. e. by 
i giving loose to servile flattery, or promiscuous praise ; 
i! while others were as ready to oppose and contradict 
J every thing that was said. Some have deserved just 
r censure for a morose and affected taciturnity, and 
i others have been anxious and careful lest their silence 
• should be interpreted a want of sense, and therefore 
they have ventured to make speeches, though they had 
j nothing to say which was worth hearing. Perhaps you 
j will observe, that one was ingenious in his thoughts, 
and bright in his language, but he was so top -full of 
himself, that he let it spill on all the company ■; that he 
spoke well indeed, but that he spoke too long, and did 
not allow equal time or liberty to his associates. You 
will remark, that another was full charged to let out 
his words before his friend had done speaking, or im- 
patient of theleast opposition to any thing he said. You 
will remember that some persons have talked at large, 
and with great confidence, of things which they un- 
derstood not ; and others counted every thing tedious 
and intolerable that was spoken upon subjects out of 
their sphere, and they would fain confine the confer- 
ence entirely within the limits of their own narrow 
knowledge and study. The errors of conversation are 
almost infinite. 

XXXI. By a review of such irregularities as these, 
you may learn to avoid those follies and pieces of ill 
conduct which spoil good conversation, or make it 
less agreeable and less useful ; and by degrees you will 
acquire that delightful ?.nd easy manner of address 
and behaviour in all useful correspondencies, which 
may render your company every where desired and 
beloved ; and at the same time, among the best of 
your companions, you may make the highest improve- 
ment in your own intellectual acquisitions, that the 
discourse of mortal creatures will allow, under ail our 
disadvantages in this sorry state of mortality. But there 
is a day coming, when we shall be seized away from 
this lower class in the school of know ledge, where we la- 
bour under the many dangers and darknesses,the errors 
and incumbrances of flesh and blood; and our conver- 
sation shall be with angels and more illuminated spir- 
its, in the upper regions of the universe. 



P® - 0E DISPUTES IN GENERAL. 

CHAP. X 

Of Disputes. 

I. Under the general head of conversation for the I 1 
Improvement of the mind, we may rank the practice" 
of disputing ; that is when two or more persons appear 
to maintain different sentiments, and defend their own,,! 
or oppose the other's opinion, in alternate discourse, Jj 
by some methods of argument. 

II. As these disputes often arise in good earnest, 
where the two contenders do really believe the differ* 
«nt propositions which they support ; so sometimes they 
are appointed as mere trials of skill in academies or 
schools, by the students ; sometimes they are practised, 
and that with apparent fervour ,in courts of judicature 
by lawyers, in order to gain the fees of their different 
clients, while both sides perhaps are really of the 
same sentiment with regard to the cause which is tried. 

III. In common conversation, disputes are often 
managed without any forms of regularity or order, and \] 
they turn to good or evil purposes, chiefly according to J; 
the temper of the disputants. They may sometimes |f 
be successful to search out truth, sometimes effectual l 1 
to maintain truth, and convince the mistaken, but at! 1 
other times a dispute is a mere scene of battle in order 
to victory and vain triumph, 

IV. There are some few general rules which should 
be observed in all debates whatsoever, if we would find ' 
out truth by them, or convince a friend of his errour, J 
even though they be not managed according to any set- j f 
tied forms of disputation. And as there are almost as j 
many opinions and judgments of things as there are 
persons, so when several persons happen to meet and f 
conter together upon any subject, they are ready to 
declare their different sentiments, and support them j 1 
by such reasonings as they are capable or. This is j 
called debating, or disputing, as is above described. | 

V. When persons begin a debate, they should always 
take care that they are agreed in some general princi- 
pies or propositions,whicheither more nearly or remote- 
ly affect the question in hand; for otherwise they have no ! 
foundation or hop® of convincing each other; they 



OE DISPUTES IN eE3fBBAfc. S7 

must have some common ground to stand upon, while 
they maintain the contest. 

• When they find they agree in some remote proposi- 
tions, then let them search farther.and inquire how near 
they approach to each other's sentiments ; and what- 
soever propositions they agree in, let these lay a foun- 
dation for the mutual hope of conviction. Hereby you 
will be prevented from running at every turn to some 
original and remote propositions and axioms, which 
practice both entangles and prolongs a dispute. As for 
instance, if there was a debate proposed between a 
Protestant and a Papist, whether there be such a place 
as purgatory ; let them remember that they both agree 
in this point, that Christ has made satisfaction or atone- 
ment for sin, and ujion this ground let them both stand, 
while they search out the controverted doctrine of 
purgatory, by way of conference or debate. 

VI. The question should be cleared from all doubt- 
ful terms and needless additions ; and all things that 
belong to the question, should be expresed in plain and 
intelligible language. This is so necessary a thing, 
that without it, men will be exposed to such sorts of 
ridiculous contests as was found one day between the 
two unlearned combatants, Sartor and Sutor, who as- 
saulted arid defended the doctrine of transubstantia- 
tion with much zeal and violence ; but Latino happen- 
ing to come into their company, and inquiring the sub- 
ject of their dispute, asked each of them what he 
meant by that long word transubstantiation. Sutor 
readily informed him, that he understood bowing at 
the name of Jesus ; but Sartor assured him that he 
meant nothing but bowing at the high altar : '* No 
wonder, then," said Latino, "that you cannot agree, 
when you neither understand one another, nor the word 
about which you contend." I think the whole family 
of the Sartors and Sutors would be wiser if they avoid- 
ed such kind of debates till they understood the terms 
better. But alas ! even their wives carry on such con- 
ferences; the other day one was heard in the street 
explaining to her less learned neighbour, the meaning 
lof metaphysical science; and she assured her, that as 
physics were medicines for the body,so metaphysics was 
physics for the soul ; upon this they went on to dis- 
pute the point, how far the divine excelled the doctor* 



88 OB DISPUTES IN GB»ERA£. 

Auditum ad?nhsi risum tencatis amici? 
Ridentem dicere verum quid vetcUb /«.......Har. 

Can it be faulty to repeat 

A dialogue that waik'd the street? 

Or can my gravest friends forbear 

A laugh, when such disputes they hear? 

VII. And not only the sense and meaning of fbcf 
words used in the question should be settled and adjust- ; 
ed between the disputants, but the precise point of in- 
quiry should be distinctly fixed ; the question in debate; j 
should be limited precisely to its special extent, or de-i j 
clared to be taken in its more general sense- As foifi 
instance, if two men are contending whether civil gov- 1 
ernment be of divine right or not ; here it must be ob- 
served, the question is not whether monarchy in on^ 
man, or a republic in multitudes of the people, or aii 
aristocracy in a few of the chiefs, is appointed of Goq 
as necessary ; but whether civil government in its most 
general sense, qr in any form whatsoever, is derived 
from the will and appointment of God ? Again, thd 
point of inquiry should be limited further. Thus, thd! 
question is, not whether government comes from the 
will of God by the light of divine revelation, for that; 
is granted ; but whether it be derived from the will of 
God by the light of reason too. This sort of specifica-'i 
tion or limitation of the question, hinders and pi events! i 
the disputants from wandering away from the precis*) 
point of inquiry. 

It is this trifling humour or dishonest artifice o:j 
changing the question and wandering away from th4 
first point of debate, which gives endless length to dis-i 
putes, and causes both the disputants to part withou 1 
any satisfaction. And one chief occasion of it is this j 
when one of the combatants feels his cause run lo^ 
and fail, and is just ready to be confuted and demolish] 
ed, he is tempted to step aside to avoid the blow, ant 1 
betakes him to a different question ; thus, if hisadver- 1 
sary be not well aware of him, he begins to entrench 
himself in a new fastness, and holds out the siege wjtlj 
a new artillery of thoughts and words. It is thcprid<l 
of man which is the spring of this evil, and an unwill! 
ingness to yield up their own opinions even to be overj 
Qome by truth itself. 

VIII. Keep this always therefore upon your m'mi 
as an everlasting rule of conduct in your debates to fine 



OF DISPUTES IN GENERAL. 89 

oat truth, that a resolute design, or even a warm af- 
fectation of victory, is the bane of all real improvement, 
ami an effectual bar against the admission of the truth 
which you profess to seek. This works with a secret, 
but a powerful and mischievous influence in every dis- 
pute, unless we are much upon our guard, It appears 
in frequent conversation ; every age, every sex, and 
each party of mankind, are so fond of being in the 
right, that they know not how to renounce tais unhap- 
py prejudice, this vain love of victory. 

When truth with bright evidence is ready to break 
in upon a disputant, and to overcome his objections and 
mistakes, how swift and ready is the mind 10 engage 
wit and fancy, craft and subtiky, to cloud and perplex 
and puzzle the truth, if possible ! How eager is he to 
throw in some impertinent question to divert from the 
main subject! How swift to take hold of some occa- 
sional word, thereby to lead the discourse off from the 
point in hand! So much afraid is human nature of 
parting with its errors, and being overcome by truth. 
Just thus a hunted hare calls up all the shifts that na- 
ture hath taught her, she treads back her mazes,cross- 
es and confounds her former track, and uses all pos- 
sible methods to divert the scent, when she is in dan- 
ger of being seized and taken. Let puss practise what 
nature teaches; but would one imagine, that any ra- 
tional being should take such pains to avoid truth, and 
to escape the improvement of its understanding? 

IX. When you come to a dispute in order to find 
out truth, do not presume that you are certainly pos- 
sessed of it beforehand. Enter the debate with a sin- 
cere design of yielding to reason, on which side soever 
it appears. Use no subtle arts to cloud and entangle 
the question ; hide not yourself in doubtful words and 
phrases ; do not affect little shifts and subterfuges to 
avoid the force of an argument ; take a generous pleas- 
ure to espy the first rising beams of truth, though it 
be. on the side of your opponent ; endeavour t<f remove 
the little obscurities that hang about it, and suffer and 
encourage it to break out into open and convincing 
light; that while your opponent perhaps may gain the 
better of your reasonings, yet you yourself may triumph 
over error, and I am sure that is a much more valua- 
ble acquisition and victory. 

ST.- Watch narrowly in everv dispute, that your op- 
1 



00 &E DISPUTES IS" 6EA T SRAL.. 

ponent does not lead you unwarily to grant some prim 
eiple of the proposition, which will bring with it a. fatal 
consequence, and lead you insensibly into his sentiment, 
though it be far astray from the 'truth ; and by this » 
wrong step you will be, as it were, plunged into dan- \ 
gerous errors before you are aware. Polonides in free j. 
conversation, led Incauto to agree with him in thist 
plain proposition, that the blessed God has too much \ 
justice in any case to punish* any being who is in itself I' 
innocent ; till he not only allowed it with an unthinking 
alacrity, but asserted it in most universal and unguard- 1 
cd terms. A little after, Polonides came in discourse i 
to commend the virtues, the innocence, and the piety of j 
©ur blessed Saviour ; and thence inferred, it was im- , 
possible that God should ever punish so holy a person, i 
who was never guilty of any crime ; then Incauto es- | 
pied the snare,and found himself robbed and defrauded ( 
of the great doctrine of the atonement by the death of | 
Christ, upon which he had placed his immortal hopes, 
according to the gospel. 

This taught him to bethink himself what a danger- ; 
eus concession he had made in so universal a manner,! 
that God would never punish any being who was inne- j 
cent, and he saw it needful to recal his words, or to ex- j 
plain them better, by adding this restriction or limita- 
tion, viz. Unless this innocent being were some way in- 
volved in another's sin, or stood as a voluntary surety 
for the guilty; by this limitation, he secured the great 
and blessed doctrine of the sacrifice of Christ for the 
sins of men, and learnt to be more cautious in his con- 
cessions for the time to come. 

Two months ago, Fatalio had almost tempted hrs 
friend Fidens to leave off prayer, and to abandon his 
dependence on the providence of God in the common 
affairs of life, by obtaining of him a concession of the 
Hke kind. - Is it not evident to reason, says Fatalio, that 
God's immense scheme of transactions in the universe, 
was contrived and determined long before vou and I 
were born ? Can yea imagine, my dear Fidens, thai 
the blessed God changes his original contrivances, an.'l 
wakes new interruptions in the course of them, so often 
as you and I want his aid, to prevent the little accidents 
of life, or to guard us from them ? Can you suffer voir. - 

* The word punish here signifies, to tiring 1 some natural evil o-poti St 
•person, on aecQuat o? moral evil dow. 



#F DISPUTES IN GENERAL. 91 

j self to be persuaded, that the great Creator of this 
; world takes care to support a bridge which was quite 
j rotten, and to make it stand firm a few minutes longer 
$ till you had rode over it ? Or, will he uphold a falling 
! tower, while we two were passing by it, that such 
j worms as you and I are* might escape the ruin ? 

But you say, you prayed for his protection in the 
| morning, and he certainly hears prayer. I grant he 
knows it ; but are you so "fond and weak, said he, as to 
suppose that the universal Lord of all, had such a re- 
gard to a word or two of your breath, as to make alter- 
ations in his own eternal scheme, upon that account? 
Nor is there any other way whereby his providence 
can preserve you in answer to prayer, but by creating 
such perpetual interruptions and changes in his own 
conduct according to your daily behaviour. 

I acknowledge, says Fidens, there is no other way 
to secure the doctrine of divine providence, in all these 
common affairs, and therefore I begin to doubt wheth- 
er God does or ever will exert himself so particularly 
in our little concerns. 

Have a care, good Fidens, that you yield not too far ; 
take heed lest you have granted too much to Fatalio. 
Pray let me ask of vou, comd not the great God, who 
grasps and surveys aM future and distant things in one 
single view, could not he from the beginning, foresee 
your morning prayer for his protection, and appoint 
all second causes to concur for the support of that cra- 
zy bridge ; or to make that old tower stand firm till 
you had escaped the danger ? Or could not he cause 
all the mediums to work, so as to make it it fall before 
you came near it? Can he not appoint all his own 
transactions in the universe, and every event in the nat- 
ural world, in a way of perfect correspondence with 
his own foreknowledge of all events, actions, and ap- 
pearances of the moral world in every part of it? Can 
lie not direct every thing in nature, which is but his 
servant, to act in perfect agreement with his eternal 
prescience of our sins, or of our piety ? And hereby all 
the glory of Providence, and cur necessary depend- 
ence upon it by faith and pra\ ei\ are as well secured, as 
if he interposed to alter his own scheme every moment. 
Let me ask again, did not he in his own counsels, or 
decrees, appoint thunders, and lightnings, and earth- 
quakes, to burn up and destroy Sodom and Gomorrah, 



i)2 05 DISPUTES IX GENERAL. 

and turn them into a dead sea, just at the time wheist^ 
the iniquities of those cities were raised to their supreme: 1 
height ? Did he not ordain the fountains of the deep to j 
be broken up, and overwhelming rains to fall 
from Heaven, just when a guilty world deserved to be I 
drowned; while he took care for the security o£i 
righteous "Noah, by an ark which would float on that; £ 
very deluge of waters ? Tims he can punish the crirn^ ^ 
inal when nepleases,and reward the devout worshipper ^ 
in the proper season, by his original and eternal schemes 
of appointment, as well as if he interposed every mo- 
ment anew. Take heed, Fidens, that you be nob i g 
tempted away by such sophisms of Fatalio, to with- r 
hold prayer from God, and to renounce your 1-ith in J 
his providence. 

Remember this short and plain caution of the subtle 
errors of men : Let a snake but once thrust in his head | 
at some small unguarded fold of your garment, and he 
will insensibly and unavoidably wind his whole body 
into your bosom, and give you a pernicious wound. 

XI. On the other hand., when you have found your 
opponent make any such concession as may turn to 
your real advantage in maintaining the truth, be wise 
and watchful to observe it, and make a happy im- 
provement of it. Rhapsodus has taken a great deal of 
pains to detract from the honour of Christianity, by 
sly insinuations, that the sacred writers are perpetual- 
ly promoting virtue and pietx by promises diid threat- 
enings; whereas, neither the fear of future punishment, 
nor the hope of future reward, can possiblj be called 
good affections,or such as are the acknowledged springs 
and sources of all actions truly good. He adds further, 
that this fear, or this hope, cannot consist in reality 
with virtue or goodness, if k either stands as essential 
to any moral performance, or as a considerable motive 
to any good action ; and thus he would fain lead Christ- 
ians to be ashamed of the gospel of Christ, because of 
its future and et- rna! promises and threatenings,as being 
inconsistent with his notion of virtue ; for he supposes, 
that virtue should be so beloved and practised for the 
sake of its own beauty and loveliness, that all other 
motives arising from rewards or punishments, fear or 
hope, do really take away just so much from the very 
nature of virtue, as their influence reaches to; and no 
part of those good practices are really valuable, but 



OB DISPUTES IN GENERAL. 93 

what arises from the mere love of virtue itself, without 
any regard to punishment or reward. 
I But observe, in two pages afterwards, he grants, that 
J this principle of fear of future punish ment, and hope of 
! future reward, how mercenary and servile soever it 
I way be accounted, is yet in many circumstances a great 
' advantage, security, and support to virtue ; especially 
I where there is danger of the violence of rage or lust, 
; or any counter working passion to control and over- 
come the good affections of the mind. 

Now, the rule and the practice of Christianity, or the 
gospel, as it is closely connected with future rewards 
and punishments, may be well supported by this con- 
cession. Fray, Rhapsodus, tell me, if every man in 
this present life, by the violence of some counter work- 
ing passion, may not have his good affections to virtue 
controlled or overcome ? May not, therefore, his eter- 
nal fears and hopes be a great advantage, security, and 
support to virtue in so dangerous a state and situation, 
as our journey through this world towards a better.'' 
And this is ail that the defence of Christianity necessa- 
rily requires. 

And yet further, let me ask our rhapscdist, if you 
have nothing else, sir, but the beauty, and excellency, 
and loveliness of virtue, to preach and flourish upon, 
before such sorry and degenerate creatures, as the bulk 
of mankind are, and you have no future rewards or 
punishments, with which to address their hopes and 
Sears, how many of these vicious wretches will you ever 
reclaim from all their varieties of pr< faneness, intern-? 
perance, and madness ? How many have you ever ac- 
tually reclaimed by this smooth, soft method, and these 
tine words? What has all that reasoning and rhetoric 
done, which have been displayed by your predecessors, 
the Heathen moralists, upon this excellency and beauty 
of virtue ? Wlfat has it been able to do towards the re- 
forming of a sinful world? Perhaps now and then, a 
man of better natural mould, has been a little refined, 
and perhaps also, there may have been here and there 
a man restrained or recovered from injustice and knav- 
ery, from drunkenness, and lewdness, and vile debauch- 
eries, hv this fair reasoning and philosophy; but have 
the passions of revenge and envy, of ambition and pride, 
and the inward secret vices of the mind been mortifi- 
ed merely by this philosophical language ? Have any 



94 OF DISPUTES US GE2SEB.AL. 

of these men been made new creatures, men of real \ 
piety and love to God ? 

Go dress up all the virtues of human nature, in all [ 
the beauties of your oratory, and declaim aloud on the i 
praise of social virtue, and the amiable qualities of good- \ 
ness, till your heart or your lungs ache, among the 
looser herds of mankind, and you will ever find, as 
your Heathen fathers have done before, that the wild j 
passions and appetites of men are too violent to be re- 
strained by such mild and silken language. You may . 
as well build up a fence of straw anoTfeathers, to resist [ 
a cannon ball, or try to quench a flaming grenado with | 
a shell of fair water, as hope to succeed in these at- j 
tempts. But an eternal heaven, and an eternal hell, 
carry divine force and power with them; this doctrine 
from the mouth of Christian preachers, has begun the 
reformation of multitudes ; this gospel has recovered | 
thousands among the nations, from iniquity and death, j 
They have been awakened by these awful scenes tq! 
begin religion, and afterwards, their virtue has improv- 
ed itself into superior and more refined principles and ; 
habits by divine grace, and risen to high and eminent j 
degrees, though not to a consummate s^ate. The bless-, i 
ed God knows human nature much better than Rhap- \ 
sodus doth, and has throughout his word appointed a ' 
more proper and more effectual method of address to l 
it, by the passions of hope and fear, by punishments ! 
and rewards. i 

If you read on four pages further in these writings,, | 
you will find the author makes another concession. He ! 
allows that the master of a family, using proper re-' 
wards and gentle punishments towards his children, 
teaches them goodness, and by this help instructs them j 
in a virtue, which afterwards they practise upon other j 
grounds, and without thinking of a penalty or a bribe ; I 
and this, says he, is what we call a liberal education, j 
ard a liberal service. 

This new concession of that author may also be very \ 
happily improved in favour of Christianity. What are j 
the best of men in this life ? They are by no means ' 
perfect in virtue ; we are all but children* here under 
the great Master of the family, and he is pleased, byi 
hopes and fears, by mercies and corrections, to instruct 
us in virtue, and to conduct us onward towards the 
sublimer and more perfect practice of it in the future 



OF DISPUTES IN GENERAL. 95 

world, where it shall be performed, as in his own lan- 
guage, perhaps without, thinking of penalties and bribes* 
And since he hath allowed that this conduct may be 
Called a liberal education and a liberal service, let 
Christianity then he indulged the title of a liberal edu- 
cation also, and it is admirably fitted for such frail and 
sinful creatures, while they are training up towards 
the sublimer virtues of the heavenly state, 

XII. When you are engaged in a dispute with a 
person of very different principles from yourself, and 
you cannot find any ready way to prevail with him to. 
embrace the truth by principles which you both freely 
acknowledge, you may fairly make use of his own prin- 
ciples to show him his mistake, and thus convince or 
silence him from his own concessions. 

If your opponent should be a Stoic phjlosoper, or a 
lew, you may pursue your argument in defence oi- some 
Christian doctrine or duty against such a disputant, by 
axioms or laws borrowed either from Zeno or Moses. 
And though you do not enter into the inquiry how ma- 
ny of the laws of Moses are abrogated, or w nether 
Zeno was right or wrong in his philosophy, yet if from 
the principles and concessions of your opponent,you can 
support your argument for the gospel of Christ, this 
has been always counted a fair treatment of an adver- 
sary, and it is called argumtwiim ad hominem^ or ratio 
ex concessis, St. Paul sometimes makes use of this 
sort of disputation when he talks with Jews or Heathen 
philosophers; and at least he silences if not convinces 
them, which is sometimes necessary to be done against 
an obstinate and clamorous adversary, that just honour 
might be paid to truths which he knew were divine, 
and that the only true doctrine of salvation might be 
confirmed and propagated among sinful and dying men. 

XIII. Yet great care must be taken lest your de- 
bates break in upon your passions, and awaken them 
to take part in the controversy. When the opponent 
pushes hard, and givesjust and mortal wounds to our own 
opinions, our passions are very apt to feel the strokes, 
and to rise in resentment and defence* Self is so min- 
gled with the sentiments which we have chosen, and 
has such a tender feeling of all the opposition which is 
made to them, that personal brawls are very ready to 
come in as seconds, to succeed and finish the dispute <$ 



96 OF DISPUTES IN GEKERAL. 

opinions. Then noise and clamour and folly appear ia 
all their shapes, and chase reason and truth out of sight.! 
How unhappy is the case of frail and wretched man- ' 
kind in this dark and ciusky state of strong passion and | 
glimmering reason ! How ready are we, when our pas- 1 
sions are engaged in the dispute, to consider more what I 
loads of nonsense and reproach we can lay upon our | 
opponent, than what reason and truth require in the" 
controversy itself. Dismal are the consequences man- '" 
kind are too often involved in by this evil principle ; it f 
is this common and dangerous practice that carries the j 
heart aside from all that is fair and honest in our search |f 
after truth, or the propagation of it in the world. One [ 
would wish from one's very soul, that none of the [ 
Christian fathers had been guilty of such follies as these. I 

But St. Jerome fairly confesses this evil principle, in 
his apology for himself to Pammachius, that he had ! 
not so much regarded what was exactly to be spoken i 
in the controversy he had in hand, as what was lit to I 
lay a load on Jovinian. And indeed, I fear this was the 
vile custom of many of the writers, even in the church 
affairs of those times. But it will be a double scandal 
upon us in our more enlightened age, it' we will allow 
ourselves in a conduct so criminal and dishonest. Hap- 
py souls, who keep such a sacred dominion over their 
inferior and animal powers, and all the influences of 
pride and secular interest, that the sensitive tumults, 
or these vicious influences, never rise to disturb the 
superior and better operations of the reasoning mind ! 

XIV. These general directions are necessary, or at 
least useful, in all debates whatsoever, whether they 
arise in occasional conversation, or are appointed at 
any certain time or place; whether they are managed 
with or without any formal rules to govern them. But 
there are three sorts of disputation, 'in which there are 
some forms and orders observed, and which are dis- 
tinguished by these three names, viz. Socratic, Foren- 
sic, and Academic, I e. the disputes of the schools. 

Concerning each of these it may not be improper to 
discourse a little, and give a few particular directions 
or remarks about them. 



SOCRATICAL DISPUTATION 97 

i ' 

CHAP. XL 

The Socratical Way tf Disjiutation, 

THIS method of dispute derives its name from Soc- 
rates, by whom it was practised, and by other philoso- 
phers in his age, long before Aristotle invented the par- 
ticular forms of syllogism in mood and figure, which 
are now used in scholastic disputations. 

II. The Socratical way is managed by questions and 
answers in such a manner as this, viz. If I would lead 
a person into the belief of a heaven and a hell, or a fu- 
ture state of rewards and punishments, I might begin 
in some such manner of inquiry, and suppose the most 
I obvious and easy answers. 

Quest. Does not God govern the world ? 

Jins, Surely he that made it governs it. 

Quest. Is not God both a good and a righteous gov- 
| ernour ? 

jins. Both these characters doubtless belong to him. 

Quest. What is the true notion of a good and right- 
I eous govemour ? 

Ana. That he punishes the wicked and rewards the 
! good. 
I Quest. Are the good always rewarded in this life ? 

Arts. No surely, for many virtuous men are misera- 
ble litre, ann gveatly afflicted. 

Quest. Are the wicked always punished in this life ? 

Arm. No certainly, for many of them live without 
sorrow, and some of the vilest of men are often raised 
to great riches and honour. 

Quest. Wherein then doth God make it appear that 
i he is good and righteous ? 

Arts. I own there is but little appearance of it on earth. 

Quest. Wil: there not be a time then when the tables 
I shall be tun.ec, and the scene of things changed, since 
! G:d governs mankind righteously ? 

Ans, Doubtless, there must be a proper time, where- 
i in God will m^.ke that goodness and that righteousness 
i to appear. 

( Quest. If this be not before their death, how can it 
i be done ? 

Am, I can think of no other way but by supposing 
! man to have some existence after this life. 



98 SGCRATICAL DISPUTATION. 

Quest. Are you not convinced then that there mu^:l 
be a state of reward and punishment after death ? \{ 

Ans. Yes, surely, I now see plainly that the gopji* 
ness and righteousness of God, as governour cf thd.n 
world, necessarily require it. jj 

III. Now the advantages of this method are ven} ; 
considerable. id 

(1.) It represents the form of a dialogue or commoh : f 
conversation, which is a much more easy, more pleasant^! 
and a more sprightly wav of instruction, and more fi| 
to excite the attention and sharpen the penetration o| 
the learner, than solitary reading, or silent attention tc 
a lecture. Man being a social creature, delights more 
in conversation, and learns better this way, if it could 
always be wisely and happily practised. 

(2.) This method hath something very obliging in \t'j 
and carries a very humble ana condescending air, when 
lie that instructs seems to be the inquirer, and seeks 
Information from him who learns. 

(3.) It leads the learner into the knowledge of tratl] 
as it were by his own invention, which is a very pleasing 
thing to human nature ; and bv questions pertinently 
and artificially proposed, it does as effectually dra\* 
him on to discover his own mistakes, which he is much! 
more easily persuaded to relinquish when he seems td 
have discovered them himself. 

(4.) It is managed in a great measure in the form of' 
the most easy reasoning, always arising from something! 
asserted or known in the foregoing answer, and so pro-j 
ceeding to inquire something unknown in the following 
question, which again makes way for the next answer. 
Now such an exercise is very alluring and entertaining 
to the understanding, while its own reasoning powed 
are all along employed ; and that without labour or difj 
ficulty, because the querist finds out and proposes all 
the intermediate ideas or middle terms. 

IV. There is a method very nearly akin to this,which 
has much obtained of late, viz. writing controversies by' 
questions only, or confirming or refuting any position, oil 
persuading to or dehorting from any practice, by the! 
mere proposal of queries. The answer to them is sup- 
posed to be so plain and so necessary, that they are not 
expressed, because the query itself carries a convincing!' 
argument in it, and seems to determine what the an- 
swer must be. 



OF FORENSIC DISPUTES. 99 

; V. If Christian catechisms could be framed in the 
!! aianner of a Socratical dispute by question and answer, 
fi it would wonderfully enlighten the minds of children, 
; and it would improve their intellectual and reasoning 
I powers, at the same time that it leads them into the 
I knowledge of religion ; and it is upon one account well 
suited to the capacity of children ; for the questions may 
be pretty numerous and the cmerist must not proceed 
too swiftly towards the determination of his point pro- 
posed, that he may with more ease, with brighter evi- 
dence, and with surer success, draw the learner on to 
assent to those principles, step by step, from whence the 
final conclusion will naturally arise. The only incon- 
venience would be this, that if children were to reason 
out all their way, entirely into the knowledge of every 
part of their religion, it would draw common catechisms 
into too large a volume for their leisure, attention, or 
memory. 

Yet those who explain their catechisms to them may, 
by due application and forethought, instruct them in 
this manner. 

CHAP. XII. 

Of Forensic Disfiutes. 

I. THE Forum was a public place in Rome where 
lawyers and orators made their speeches before the 
proper judge in matters of property, or in criminal ca- 
ses/ to accuse or excuse, to complain or defend ; thence 
all sorts of disputations in public assemblies or courts of 
justice, where several persons make their distinct 
speeches for or against any person or tiling whatsoever, 
but more especially in civil matters, may come under 
the name of Forensic Disputes. 

II. This is practised not only in the courts of judica- 
ture, where a single person sits to judge of the truth or 
goodness of any cause, and to determine according to the 
weight of reasons on either side; but it is used also in 
political senates or parliaments, ecclesiastical synods, 
and assemblies of various kinds. 

In these assemblies*, generally one person is chosen 
chairman or moderator, not to give a determination to 
the controversy, but chiefly to keep the several speak- 
ers to the rules of order and decency in their conduct ; 



100 OK SORENSIC DISPUT&S.. 

but the final determination of the questions arises ffiggcf 
the majority of opinions or votes in the assembly, accordj 
ing as they are or ought to be swayed by the superior 
weight of reason appearing in the several speeches thai 
are made. ' : 

III. The method of proceeding is usually in son# 
such form as this. The first person who speaks wherrj 
the court is set, opens the case either more briefly or atFi 
targe, and proposes the case to the judge, or the chair-' 1 
man, or moderator of the assembly, and gives his own 
reasons for his opinion in the case proposed. 

IV. This person is succeeded by one, or perhaps twd J | 
or several more, who paraphrase on the same subject^ 
and argue on the same side of the question ; they confirm 
what the first has spoken, and urge new reasons to enn 
fbrce the same ; then those who are of a different opin-l 
ion stand up and make their several speeches in a such 
cession, opposing the cause which others have maintain 
ed, giving their reasons against it, and endeavouring to 
refute the arguments whereby the first speakers have 
supported it. 

V. After this, one and another rises up to make theiti 
.replies, to vindicate or to condemn, to establish or ton 
confute what has been offered before, on each side of tho-| 
question; till at last, according to the rules, orders, or j 
customs of the court or assembly, the controversy is de- 
cided, either by a single judge, or the suffrage of the ' 
assembly. 

VI. Where the question or matter in debate consists 
■of several parts, after it is once opened by the first or 
Second speaker, sometimes those who follow take each 
of them a particular part of the debate, according to 
their inclination or their prior agreement, and apply 
themselves to argue upon that single point only, that so 
the whole complexion of the debate may not be thrown 
into confusion by the variety of subjects, if every speak- 
er should handle all the subjects of debate. 

VII. Before the final sentence or determination is 
given, it is usual to have the reasons and arguments 
which have been offered on both sides, summed up and 
represented in a more compendious manner ; and this is 
done either by the appointed judge of the court, or the 
chairman, or some noted person in the assembly, that so 
judgment may proeeed upon ttse fMlest sarvey ©f ft&? 



0® ACADEMIC, &C. 181 

whole subject, that as far as possible in human affairs, 
nothing may be done contrary to truth or justice. 

VIII. As this is a practice in which multitudes of 
gentlemen, besides those of the learned professions, may 
be engaged, at least in their maturer years of life, so it 
would be a very proper and useful thing to introduce 
this custom into our academies, viz, to propose cases, 
and let the students debate them in a Forensic manner 
in the presence of their tutors. There was something 
of this kind practised by the Roman youth in their 
schools, in order to train them up for orators, both in 
the forum and in the senate. Perhaps Juvenal giv&s 
some hints of it when he says, 

et nos 

Consilium dedimus Syllce, privatus ut ultum 
Qormiret Sat.lv 

Where with men-boys I strove to get renown, 
Advising Syila to a private gown, 
That he might sleep the sonnder. 

Sometimes these were assigned to the boys as singly 
subjects of a theme or declamation ; so the same poet 
speaks sarcastically to Hannibal, 

•'. J demenst et sasvas curre pei' Alpes, 

Ut pueris placeas et declamatio Jias. Sat 20. 

Go climb the rugged Alps, ambitiou* fool, 
To please the boys, and be a theme at school. 

See more of this matter in Rennet's antiquities of 
Rome, in the second Essay on the Roman Education. 



CHAP. XIII. 

Of Academic or Scholastic Disfiutation. 

THE common methods in which disputes are man- 
aged in schools of learning are these, viz. 

I. The tutor appoints a question in some of the scien- 
ces, to be debated amongst his students; one of them 
undertakes to affirm or deny the question, and to defend 
his assertion or negation, and to answer all objections 
against it ; he is called the respondent ; and the rest of 
tie students in the same class, or who pursue the same 
S( ience, are the opponents, who are appointed to dispute 
or raise objections against the proposition thus affirmed 
qr denied ,. 

K 



102 OE ACADEMIC, OR 

II. Each of the students sucessively in their tun 
becomes the respondent or the defender of that propo- 
sition, while the rest oppose it also successively in then 1 
turns. lf 

III. It is the business of the respondent to write a 1 
thesis in Latin, or short discourse on the question pro J 
posed ; and he either affirms or denies the question acf 
cording to the opinion of the tutor, which is supposed, 
to be the truth, and he reads it at the beginning of the^ 
dispute. 

IV. In his discourse, (which is written with as great 
accuracy as the youth is capable of) he explains ihef 
terms of the question, frees them from all ambiguity,* 
fixes their sense, declares the true intent and meaning^; 
of the question itself, separates it from other questions Pj 
with which it may have been complicated, and distin- ' 
guishes it from other questions which may happen to be ) 
akin to it, and then pronounces in the negative or af- 3 
firmative concerning it. 

V. When this is done, then in the second part of his 
discourse he gives his ownltrongest arguments to confirm 
the proposition he has laid down, i. e. to vindicate his 
own side of the question ; but he does not usually pro- 
ceed to represent the objections against it, and to solve 
or answer them ; for it is the business of the other stu- 
dents to raise objections in disputing. 

VI. Note. In some schools the respondent is admit- 
ted to talk largely upon the question, with many flour- 
ishes and illustrations, to introduce great authorities \ 
from ancient and modern writings for the support of it, ! 
and to scatter Latin reproaches in abundance on all i 
those who are of a different sentiment. But this is not '■ 
always permitted, nor should it indeed be ever indulg- \ 
ed, lest it teach youth to reproach, instead of reasoning. [ 

VII. When the respondent has read over his thesis [ 
in the school, the junior student makes an objection, and \ 
draws it up in the regular form of a syllogism ; the re- ! , 
spondent repeats the objection, and either denies the ! 
major or minor proposition directly, or he distinguishes ' 
upon some word or phrase in the major or minor, and I 
shows in what sense the proposition may be true, but ! 
that sense does not affect the question ; and then de- . 
clares that in the sense which affects the present ques- 
tion, the proposition is not true, and consequently he de- 
nies it. 



b' 



SCHOLASTIC DISPUTATION. 103 

VIII. Then the opponent proceeds by another syllo- 
gism to vindicate the proposition that is denied ; again 
The respondent answers by denying or distinguishing. 

|i Thus the disputation goes on in a series or succession 
| of syllogisms and answers, till the objector is silenced, 
| and has no more to say. 

IX. When he can go no further, the next student be- 
gins to propose his objection, and then the third and 

the fourth, even to the senior, who is the last opponent. 

X. During this time, the tutor sits in the chair as 
| president or moderator to see that the rules of dispu- 
i tation and decency be observed on both sides ; and to 

admonish each disputant of any irregularity in their 
I conduct. His work is also to illustrate and explain the 
| answer or distinction of the respondent where it is ob- 
! scure, to strengthen it where it is weak, and to correct 
it where it is false ; and when the respondent is pinch- 
ed with a strong objection, and is at a loss for an answer, 
the moderator assists him, and suggests some answer to 
the objection of the opponent, in defence of the question, 
according to his own opinion or sentiment. 

XL In public disputes, where the opponents and re- 
spondents choose their own side of the question, the 
moderator's work is not to favour either disputant ; but 
he only sits as president, to see that the laws of dispu- 
tation be observed, and a decorum maintained. 

XII. Now the laws of disputation relate either to the 
opponent, or to the respondent, or to both. 
The laws obliging the opponent are these : 

1. That he must directly contradict the proposition 
of the respondent, and not merely attack any of the ar- 
guments whereby the respondent has supported that 

1 proposition ; for it is one thing to confute a single argu- 
ment of the respondent, and another to confute the the- 
sis itself. 

2. (Which is akin to the former.) He must contra- 
dict or oppose the very sense and intention of the prop- 
osition as the respondent has stated it, and not merely 
oppose the words of the thesis in any other sense ; for 
this would be the way to plunge the "dispute into ambi- 
guity and darkness, to talk beside the question, to wran- 
gle about words, and to attack a proposition different 
from what the respondent has espoused, which is called 
ignoratio elenchi. 

3. He must propose his argumenta in a plain, short, 



1,01 OF ACADEMIC, OR 



and syllogistic form, according to the rules of logic, with! 
out flying to fallacies or sophisms ; and as far as maj 
be, he should use categorical syllogisms. 1 

4. Though the respondent may be attacked eithe^f 
upon a point of his own concession, which is called cr- ( cj 
gumentum ex coticessis, or by reduong him to an am 
surdity, which is called reduclio ad abiurdum, yet it jrf 
the neatest, the most useful, and the best sort of dispu 
tation, where the opponent draws his objections fro; 
the nature of the question itself. 

5. Where the respondent denies any proposition, tl 
opponent, it he proceed, must directly vindicate an 
confirm that proposition, i. e. he must make that propyl 
osition the conclusion of his next syllogism. 

6. Where the respondent limits or distinguishes an 
proposition, the opponent must directly prove his ow 
proposition in that sense, and according to that member 
of the distinction in which the respondent denied it. 

XIII. The laws that oblige the respondent are these i 

1. To repeat the argument of the opponent in the 
very same words in which it was proposed, before he 
attempts to answer it. 

2. If the syllogism be false in the logical form of it 
he must discover the fault according to the rules of logic) 

3. If the argument does not directly and effectually! 
oppose his thesis, he must show this mistake, and makd 
it appear that his thesis is safe, even though the argu- 
ment of the opponent be admitted ; or at least, that the 
argument does only aim at it collaterally, or at a dis-i 
tance, and not directly overthrow it, or conclude agains^ 
it. 

4. Where the matter of the opponent's objection is 
faulty in any part of it, the respondent must grant what} 
is true in it, he must deny what is false, he must distin-j 
guish or limit the proposition which is ambiguous or 
doubtful ; and then, granting the sense in which it isi 
true, he must deny the sense in which it is false. 

5. If a hypothetic proposition be false, the respond- 
ent must deny the consequence; if a disjunctive, he.j 
must deny the disjunction ; if a categoric or relative, he 
must simply deny it. 

6. It is sometimes allowed for the respondent to use! 
an indirect answer after he has answered directly ; and 
he may also show how the opponent's argument may 
be retorted against himself. 



SCHOLASTIC DISPUTATION. 105 

• XIV. The laws that oblige both disputants are these. 

1. Sometimes it is necessary there should be a men- 
tion of certain general principles, in which they both 
agree, relating to the question, that so they may not dis- 
pute on those things v/hich either are or ought* to have 
been first granted on both sides. 

2, When the state of the controversy is well known, 
and plainly determined and agreed, it must not be al- 
tered by either disputant in the course of the disputa- 
tion; and the respondent especially should keep a 
watchful eye on the opponent, in this matter, 

£>. Let neither party invade the province of the ether; 
especially let the respondent take heed that he does 
not turn opponent, except in retorting the argument up- 
on his adversary after a direct response; and even this 
is allowed only as an illustration or confirmation of his 
own response. 

4. Let each wait with patience till the other has done 
speaking. It is a piece of rudeness to interrupt another 
in his speech. 

Yet though the disputants have not this liberty, the 
moderator may do it, when either of the disputants 
break the rules, and he may interpose so far as to keep 
them in order. 

XV. It must be confessed, there are seme advanta- 
ges to be attained by academical disputations. It gives 
vigour and briskness to the mind thus exercised, and 
relieves the languor of private study and meditation. It 
sharpens the wit and all the inventive powers. It makes 
the thoughts active, and sends them on all sides to find 
arguments and answers both for opposition and defence. 
It gives oppoitunity of viewing the subject of discourse 
on all sides,and of learning what inconveniences, difficul- 
ties, and objections, attend particular opinions. It fur- 
nishes the .soul with various occasions of starting such 
thoughts as otherwise would never have come into the 
mind. It makes a student more expert in attacking 
and refuting an error, as well as in vindicating a truth. 
It instructs the scholar in the various methods of ward- 
ing oft' the force of objections, and of discovering and re- 
felling the subtle tricks of sophisters. It procures also 
a freedom and readiness of speech, and raises the mod- 
est and diffident genius to a due degree of courage. 

XVI. But there are some very grievous inconvenien- 
ces that mav sometimes overbalance all these advai-ia- 

K % 



106 9F ACADEMIC, OR 

ges. For many young students, by a constant habit o 
disputing, grow impudent and audacious, proud anc 
disdainful, talkative and impertinent, and render them-! 
selves intolerable by an obstinate humour of maintaining 
whatever they have asserted, as well as by a spirit of 
contradiction, opposing almost every thing that thejj 
hear. The disputation itself often awjtkens the passions 
of ambition, emulation, and anger; it carries away the 
mind from that calm and sedate temper which is so 
necessary to contemplate truth. 

XVII. It is evident also, that by frequent exercises of 
this sort, wherein opinioi s true and false are argued/ 1 
supported, and refuted, on both sides, the mind ot manj> 
is led by insensible degrees to an uncertain and fluctuat-H 
ing temper, and falls into danger of a sceptical humour^ 
which never comes to an establishment in any doctrines. 
Many persons by these means become much more ready- 1 ; 
to oppose whatsoever is offered in searching out truth ;PJ 
they hardiy wait till they have read or heard the seritPP 
rnent of any person, before their heads are busily em^ 
ployed to seek out arguments against it. They growf 
naturally sharp in finding out difficulties; and by in- 
dulging this humour, they converse with the dark andf 
doubtful parts of a subject so long, till they almost renderf 
themselves incapable of receiving the lull evidence of ai 
proposition and acknowledging the light of truth. It- 
has some tendency to make a youth a carping critic, j 
rather than a judicious man. 

XVIII. I would add yet further, that in these dispu- 1 
tations the respondent is generally appointed to main- j 
tain the supposed truth, that is, the tutor's opinion. But 
all the opponents are busy and warmly engaged in find- 
ing arguments against the truth. Now if a sprightly 
young genius happens to manage his argument sc well 
as to puzzle aud gravel the respondent, and perhaps to 
perplex the moderator a little too, he is soon trmpted 
to suppose his argument unanswerable, and the truth 
entirely to lie on his side. The pleasure which he takes 
in having found a sophism which has great appearance 
of reason, ant! which he himself has managed with such 
success, become perhaps a strong prejudice to engage 
his inward sentiments in favour of his argument, and in 
opposition to the supposed truth. 

XIX. Yet perhaps it may be possible to reduce scho- 
lastic disputations under such a guard hi may in some, 



scholastic Disputation. IQf 

Lj measure prevent most of these abuses of them, and the 
|| unhappy events that too often attend them ; for it is a 
i pity that an exercise which has some valuable benefits 
j attending it should be utterly thrown away, if it be pas- 
•jj sible to secure young minds against the abuse of it ; for 
jj which purpose, some of these directions may seem 
I proper: 
3 XX. General directions for scholastic disputes : 

1. Never dispute upon mere trifles, things that are 
utterly useless to be known, under a vain pretence of 
I sharpening the wit ; for the same advantage may be de- 
| rived from solid and useful subjects, and thus two hap- 
py ends may be attained at once. Or if such disputa- 
tions are always thought dangerous in important mat* 
ters, let them be utterly abandoned. 

2 Do not make infinite and unsearchable things the 
matter of dispute, nor such propositions as are made up 
of mere words without ideas, lest it lead young persons 
into a most unhappy habit of talking without a meaning, 
and boldly to determine upon things that are hardly 
within the reach of human capacity, 

3. Let not obvious and known truths, or some of the 
most plain and certain propositions be bandied about in 
a disputation, for a mere trial of skill ; for he that op- 
poses them in this manner will be in danger cf contract- 
ing a habit of opposing all evidence, will acquire a spirit 
of contradiction, and pride himself in the power of resist- 
ing the brightest light, and fighting against the strong- 
est proofs; this will insensibly injure the mind, and 
tends greatly to an universal scepticism. 

Upon the whole, therefore, the most proper subjects 
of dispute seem to be, those questions which are not of 
the very highest importance and certainty, nor of the 
meanest and trifling kind; but rather the intermediate 
questions between these two ; and there is a large suf- 
ficiency of them in the sciences. But this I put as a 
mere proposal, to be determined by the more learned 
and prudent. 

4. It would be well if every dispute could be so order- 
ed as to be a means of searching out truth, and not to 
gain a triumph. Then each disputant might come, to 
the work without bias and prejudice, with a desire ot 
truth, and not with ambition of glory and victory. 

Nor should the aim and design of the disputant be to 
avoid artfully and escape the difficulties which the ojj^ 



108 OF ACADEMIC, OR 

ponent offers, but to discuss them thoroughly, and solvq 
them fairly, if they are capable of being solved. 

Again, let the opponent be solicitous not to darker 
and confound the responses that are given him by freshij 
subtilties ; but let him bethink himself whether they}i 
are not a just answer to the objection, and be honestlyj) 
ready to perceive and accept them, and yield to themJi 

5. For this end, let both the respondent and opponent 
use the clearest and most distinct and expressive lan-ii 
guage in which they can clothe their thoughts. Led 
them seek and practise brevity and perspicuity on boths 
sides, without long declamations, tedious circumlocu-kj 
tioKS, and rhetorical flourishes, j 

If there happens to be any doubt or obscurity onjj 
either side, let neither the one nor the other ever refuse 
to give a fair explication of the words they use. [ 

6. They should not indulge ridicule, either of persons! 
or things, in their disputations. They should abstain! 
from ail banter and jest, laughter and merriment. 
These are things that break in upon that philGsophicai| 
gravity, sedateness and serenity of temper, which ought! 
to be observed in every search after truth. However ani 
argument on some subjects may be sometimes clothed I 
with a little pleasantry, yet a jest or witticism shouldl 
never be used instead of an argument, nor should it ev-{ 
er be suffered to pass for a real and solid proof. 

But especially if the subject be sacred or divine, and 
have nothing in it comical or ridiculous, all ludicrous 
turns, and jocose or comical airs, should be entirely ex-j 
eluded, lest young minds become tinctured with a silly j 
and profane sort of ridicule, and learn to jest and trifle 
with the awful solemnities of religion. 

7. Nor should sarcasm and reproach, or insolent lan- 
guage, ever be used among fair disputants. Turn not 
eff from things to speak of persons. Leave all noisy con- 
tests, all immodest clamours, brawling language, and 
especially all personal scandal and scurrility to the 
meanest part of the vulgar world. Let your manner 
be all candour and gentleness, patient and ready to hear, 
humbly zealous to inform and be informed - a you should 
be free and pleasant in every answer and behaviour, 
rather like well bred gentlemen in polite conversation, 
than like noisy and contentious wranglers. 

8. If the opponent sees victory to incline to his side s 
- let him be content to show the force of his argument to 



SCHOLASTIC DISPUTATION. 10$ 

jthe intelligent part of the company, with too impcrtu- 
jnate and petulent demands of an answer, and without 
({insulting over his antagonist, or putting the modesty of 
(the respondent to the blush. Nor let the respondent 
f triumph over the opponent when he is silent and replies 
jjno more. On which side soever victory declares itself,, 
I let neither of them manage with such unpleasing and 
:j insolent airs, as to awaken those evil passions of pride, 
anger, shame, or resentment, on either side, which 
alienate the mind from truth, render it obstinate in the 
; defence of an error, and never suffer it to part with 
| any of its old opinions. 

In short, when truth evidently appears on either side, 
let them learn to yield to conviction. When either par- 
ty is at a nonplus, let them confess the difficulty, and 
desire present assistance, or further time and retirement 
to consider oi the matter, and not rack their present 
invention to find out little shifts to avoid the force and 
evidence of truth. 

9. Might it not be a fairer practice, in order to attain 
the best ends of deputation, and to avoid some of the 
ill effects of it, if the opponents were, sometimes engag- 
ed on the side of truth, and produced their arguments 
in opposition to error ? And what if the respondent was 
appointed to support the error, and defend it as well as 
he could, till he was forced to yield, at least to those ar- 
guments of the opponent which appear to bz really 
just, and strong, and unanswerable? 

In this practice the thesis of the respondent should 
only be a fair stating of the question, with some of the 
chief objections against the truth proposed aid solved. 

Perhaps this practice might not so easily be perverted 
and abused to raise a cavilling, disputative, and sceptio 
al temper in the minds of youth. 

I confess, in this method which I now propose, there 
would be one amongst the students, viz. the respondent, 
always engaged in the support of supposed error ; but 
all the rest would be exercising their talents in arguing 
I for the supposed truth ; whereas, in the common meth- 
ods of disputation in the schools, especially where the 
students are numerous, each single student is perpetu- 
ally employed to oppose the truth, and vindicate error, 
except once in a long time, when it comes to his turn to 
be respondent. 
10. Upon the whole, it seems necessary that Ui£$.e 



110 OF ACADEMIC, OR 

methods of disputation should be learned in the schools, i 3 
order to teach students better to defend truth, and to 
fute error, both in writing and conversation, where thl, 
scholastic forms are utterly neglected. I, 

But after all, the advantage which youth may gai^ 
by disputation depends much on the tutor or moderator 
he should manage with such prudence, both in th^ 
disputation and at the end of it, as to make all the dis-lj 
putants know the very point of controvery wherein \\l 
consists ; he should manifest the fallacy of sophistica^l 
objections, and confirm the solid arguments and answers^ 
This might teach students how to make the art of dispu-^ 
tation useful for the searching out the truth and the de-1; 
fence of it, that it may not be learned and practised on- 
ly as an art of wrangling, which reigned in the schoolstj 
several hundred years, and divested the growing reason }( 
of youth of its best hopes and improvements. 



CHAP. XIV. 

Of Study, or Meditation. 

I. IT has been proved and established in some of || 
the foregoing chapters, that neither our own observa- i 
tions, nor our reading the labours of the learned, nor the \ 
attendance on the best lectures of instruction, nor enjoy- j 
ing the brightest conversation, can ever make a man 
truly knowing and wise, without the labours of his own I 
reason in surveying, examining, and judging, concerning 
all subjects, upon the best evidence he can acquire. A 
good genius, or sagacity of thought, a happy judgment, 
a capacious memory, and large opportunities of observa- 
tion and converse, will do much of themselves toward 
the cultivation of the mind, where they are well improv- 
ed ; but where, to the advantage of learned lectures, 
living instructions, and well chosen books, diligence and 
study are superadded, this man has ali human aids con- 
curring to raise him to a superior degree of wisdom and 
knowledge. 

Under the preceding heads of discourse, it has been 
already declared how our own meditation and reflection 
should examine, cultivate, and improve, all other meth- 
ods and advantages of enriching the understanding. 
What remains in this chapter, is to give some further 



SCHOLASTIC DISPUTATION. Ill 

• occasional hints how to employ our own thoughts, what 
j! sort of subjects we should meditate on, and in what man- 
ner we should regulate our studies, and how we may 
l! | improve our judgment, so as in the most effectual and 
i compendious way to attain such knowledge as may be 
I most useful for every man in his circumstances of life, 
j and particularly for those of the learned professions. 
■ { . II. The first direction for youth is this, learn betimes 
| to distinguish between words and things. Get clear and 
\ plain ideas of the things you are set to study. Uo not 
\ content yourselves with mere words and names, lest 
i your laboured improvements only amass a heap of unin- 
telligible phrases, and you feed upon husks instead of 
kernels. This rule is of unknown use in every science. 
But the greatest and most common danger, is in the 
sacred science of theology, where settled terms and 
phrases have been pronounced divine and orthodox, 
which yet have had no meaning in them. The scholas- 
tic divinity would furnish us with numerous instances of 
this folly ; and yet for many ages, all truth and all her- 
esy have been determined by such senseless tests, and 
by words without ideas; such Shibboleths as these have 
decided the secular fates of men ; and bishoprics, or 
burning, mitres, or faggots have been the rewards of 
different persons, according as they pronounced these 
consecrated syllables, or not pronounced them. To de- 
fend them was all piety, and pomp, and triumph ; to 
despise them, to doubt or deny them, was torture and 
death. A thousand thank offerings are due to that Prov- 
idence, which has delivered our age and our nation from 
these absurd iniquities ! O that every specimen and shad- 
ow of this madness were banished from our schools and 
churches in every shape ! 

III. Let not young students apply themselves to 
search out deep, dark, and abstruse matters, far above 
their reach, or spend their labour in any peculiar sub- 
jects, for which they have not the advantages of neces- 
sary antecedent learning, or books, or observations. Let 
them not be too hasty to know things above their present 
powers, nor plunge their inquiries at once into the depths 
of knowledge, nor begin to study any science in the mid- 
dle of it ; this will confound rather than enlighten the 
understanding ; such practices may happen to discour- 
age and jade the mind by an attempt above its power, 
*■ mav baulk the understanding, and create an aversion 



**? OF ACADEMIC, OR 

to future diligence, and perhaps by despair may forbk^ 
the pursuit of that subject forever afterwards ; as a 
limb overstrained by lifting a weight above its power] 
may never recover its former agility and vigour ; or Hi 
it does, the man may be frighted from ever exerting id 
strength again. t 

IV. Nor yet let any student, on the other hand, frigh^; 
himself at every turn with insurmountable difficulties,: 
nor imagine that the truth is wrapt up in impenetrable! 
darkness. These are formidable spectres which the} 
understanding raises sometimes to flatter its own lazi! 
ness. Those things which, in a remote and confused: 
view, seem very obscure and perplexed, may be ap£ 
preached by gentle and regular steps, and may theiji 
unfold and explain themselves at large to the eye. Th^j 
hardest problems in geometry, and the most intricate 
schemes or diagrams, may be explicated and undeni 
stood, step by step ; every great mathematician bears 
constant witness to this observation. 

V. In learning any new thing, there should be as littl 
as possible first proposed to the mind at once, and tha 
being understood and fully mastered, proceed then tp 
the next adjoining part yet unknown. This is a slow^ 
but safe and sure way to arrive at knowledge. If th 
mind apply itself at first to easier subjects, and thing 
near akin to what is already known, and then advanc 
to the more remote and knotty parts of knowledge bf 
slow degrees, it would be able in this manner to cop|t 
with great difficulties, and prevail over them with amaj) 
sing and happy success. 

" Mathon happened to dip into the two last chapter^ 
Of a new book of geometry and mensurations; as soon a^ 
he saw it, and was frighted with the complicated dutr 
grams which he found there, about the frustums of cone 1 
and pyramids, &c. and some deep demonstrations amonf 
conic sections ; he shut the book again in despair, aiv>| 
imagined none but Sir Isaac Newton was ever fit ir 
read it. But his tutor happily persuaded him to begi 
the first pages about lines and angles, and he found suoj 
surprising pleasure in three weeks time in the victoril 
he daily obtained, that at last he became one of the eh to; 
geometers of his age. 

VI. Engage not the mind in the intense pursuit 
$po many things at once ; especially such as have no r$ 
latloji tc one another. This will be ready to distract $) 



SCHOLASTIC DISPUTATION. 113 

il understanding, and hinder it from attaining perfection 
| in any one subject of study. Such a practice gives a 
| slight smattering of several sciences, without any solid 
11 and substantial knowledge of them, and without any 
j real and valuable improvement ; and though two or 
| three sorts of study may be usually carried on at once, 
| to entertain the mind with variety, that it may not be 
, over tired with one sort of thoughts; yet a multitude of 
| subjecis will too much distract the attention, and weaken 
\ the application of the mind to any one of them. 

Where two or three sciences ara pursued at the same 
time, if one of them be dry, abstracted, and unpleasant, 
as logic, metaphysics, law, languages, let another be 
more entertaining and agreeable, to secure the mind 
from weariness, and aversion to study. Delight should 
be intermingled with labour as far as possible, to allure 
us to bear the fatigue of dry studies the better. Poetry, 
practical mathematics, history, 6cc. are generally es- 
teemed entertaining studies, and may be happily used 
for this purpose. Thus while we relieve a dull and 
heavy hour by some alluring employments of the mind, 
our very diversions enrich our understandings, and our 
pleasure is turned into profit. 

VII. In the pursuit of every valuable subject of knowl- 
edge, keep the end always in your eye, and be not di- 
verted from it by every petty trifle you meet with in the 
way. Some persons have such a wandering genius, that 
they are ready to pursue every incidental theme or oc- 
casional idea, till they have lost sight of their original 
subject. These are the men who, when they are en- 
gaged in conversation, prolong their story by dwelling 
on every incident, and swell their narrative with long pa- 
rentheses, till they have lost their first design ; like a 
man who is sent in quest of some great treasure, but he 
steps aside to gather every flower he finds, or stands 
still to dig up every shining pebble he meets with in hm 
way, till the treasure is forgotten and never found. 

vIH. Exert your care, skill, and diligence, about 
every subject and every question, in a just proportion to 
the importance of it, together with the danger and bad 
consequences of ignorance and error therein. Many 
excellent advantages flow from this one direction. 

1. This rule will teach you to be very careful in gain- 
ing some general, and fundamental truths in philosophy. 
In religion, and in human life : because they are of fefee 
L 



114 OF STUDY, OR MEDITATION. 

highest moment, and conduct our thoughts with eas^ 
into a thousand interior and particular propositions 1 
Such is that great principle in natural philosophy, thl 
doctrine of gravitation, or mutual tendency of all bodiej' 
towards each other, which Sir Isaac Newton has 
well established, and from which he has drawn the sop 
Intion of a multitude of appearances in the heavenly 
bodies as well as on earth. 

Such is thftt golden principle of morality which cm 
blessed Lord has given us, " Do that to others which yo| 
think just and reasonable that others should do to you;; 
which is almost sufficient in itself to solve all cases cf 
conscience which relate to our neighbour. 

Such are those principles in religion, that a ration^" 
creature is accountable to his Maker for all his actions? 
that the sou! of man is immortal ; that there is a futurt 
state of* happiness and of misery depending on our be; 
haviour in the present life, on which all our religicupj 
practices are built or supported. jj 

We should be very curious in examining all propose 

inP 



mohiy received opinions ; no, nor the general determhr 
atiovs of the h arned, or the established articles of an 1 
church or nation, Set. for there are many learned pre! 
sumptions, many synodical and national mistakes, maP 
ny established falsehoods, as well as many vulgar er 
rors, wherein multitudes of men have followed on 
another for whole ages almost blindfold. Itisofgrea 
importance for every man to be careful that these gen- 
eral principles are just and true ; for one error may leaf 
us iuto thousands, which will naturally follow, if once | 
leading falsehood be admitted. 

2. This rule will direct us to be more careful aboti 
practical points than mere speculations, since they a.v\ 
commonly of much greater use and consequence; there 
fore the speculations of algebra, the doctrine of infinities! 
and the quadrature of curves in mathematical learning 
together with all the train of theorems in natural phi; 
losophy, should by no means intrench upon our studie 
of morality and virtue. Even in the science of diviniti 
itself, the sublimest speculations of it are not of th^ 
worth and value, as the rules of duty towards God an< 
towards men. 



02 STUDY, OK, MEDITATION. 115 

3. In matters of practice we should be most careful 
jo fix our end right, and wisely determine the scope at 
ich we aim ; oecause that is to direct us in the choice 
pnd use of all the means to attain it. If our end be 
irrcng, all our labour in the means will be vain, ' /r per- 
haps so much the more pernicious, as they are better 
kited to attain that mistaken end. If mere sensible/ 
pleasure, or human grandeur, or we. 1th, be cur chief 
end, we shall choose means contrary to piety and vir- 
tue, and proceed apace towards rea* misery. 
! 4. This rule will engage our best powers and deepest 
Attention in the affairs of religion, and things that relate 
to a future world ; for those propositions which extend 
only to the interest of the present life, are but of small 
importance when compared with those that have influ- 
jence upon our everlasting concernments. 

5. And even in the aff "ah s of religion , if we w a Ik by the 
conduct of this rule, we shall' be much more 1 iborious in 
our inquiries into the necessary ana fundamental arti- 
cles of faith and practice, than theiesser appendices of 
Christianity. The doctrines of repentance towards God, 
faith in our Lord Jesus Chiist, with love to men. and uni» 
versal holiness, will employ our best and brightest hours 
and meditations ; while the mint, anise, and cummin, 
the gestures, vestures, and fringes of religion, will be re- 
garded no further than they have a plain and evident 
connexion with faith and love, with holiness and peace* 

6. This rule will make us solicitous not only to avoid 
such errors, whose influence will spread wide into the 
whole scheme of our own knowledge and practice, but 
such mistakes also whose influence would be yet more 1 
extensive and injurious to others, as well as to ourselves ; 
perhaps to many persons or many families ; to a whole 
church, a town, a country, or a kingdom. Upon this* 
account, persons who are called to instruct others, who 
arc raised to any eminence either in church or state, 
ought to be careful in settling their principles in matters 
relating to the civil, the moral, or the religious' life, lest 
a mistake of theirs should diffuse wide mischief, should 
draw along with it most pernicious consequences, and 
perhaps extend to following generations. 

These are some of the advantages w&sch arise from 
the eighth rule, viz. Pursue every inquiry and study in 
proportion to its real value and importance. 

IX. Have a care lest some beloved notion, or some 



116 OV STUDY, OK MEDITATI6BT. 

darling science, so far prevail over your mind, a3 to give 
a sovereign tincture to all your other studies, atid dis*| 
colour all your ideas ; like a person in the jaundice, who! 
spreads a yellow scene with his eyes over all tne objects | 
which he meets. I have known a man of peculiar skill, 
in music, and much devoted to that science, who found!' 
out a great resemblance of the Athanasian doctrine of 
the Trinity in every single note, and he thought it car- 5 
ried something of argument in it to prove the doctrine,) 
1 have read of another, who accommodated the seven j 
days of the first week of creation to seven notes of music, 
and thus the whole creation become harmonious. \ 

Under this influence, derived from mathematical stu-f. 
dies, some have been tempted to cast all their logical, I 
their metaphysical, and their theological, and moral!: 
learning into the method of mathematicians, and b iftg* 
every thing relating to tho^e abstracted, or those prac-s 
tical sciences, under theorems, problems, postulates^ 
scholiums, corollaries, See. whereas the matter oughtp 
always to direct the method ; for all subjects or mattersi) 
of thought, cannot be moulded or subdued to one forms !{ 
Neither the rules for the conduct of the understanding, |i 
nor the doctrines nor the duties of religion and virtue,^ 
can be exhibited naturally in figures and diagrams, i 
Things are to be considered as they are in themselves ;|i 
their natures are inflexible, and their natural relations I 
unalterable; and therefore, in order to conceive them/ 
aright, we must bring our understandings to things, and 
not pretend to bend and strain things to comport with I 
our fancies and forms: ) 

X. Suffer not any beloved study to prejudice your* 
mind so far in favour of it as to despise all other 'earn-,* 
ing. This is a fault of some little souls, who have got a 
smattering of astronomy, chemistry, metaphysics his-t 
tory, £cc. and for want of a due acquaintance with other 1 
sciences, make a scoff at them all in comparison of their? 
favourite science. Their understanding; are hereby* 
cooped up in narrow bounds, so that they never look a 
broad into other provinces of the intellectual world, which [ 
are more beautiful perhaps, and mote fruitful than their, 
own; if they would search a little into other sciences,' 
they might not only find treasures of new knowledge,! 1 
but might be furnished al?o with rich hints of thought,/ 
and glorious assistances, to cultivate that very province 
to which they have confined themselves. 



OP STUDY, OB. MEDITATION. 117 

j Here I would always give some grains of allowance 
jtothe sacred science of theology, which is incomparably 
(superior to all the rest, as it teaches us the knowledge 
jof God, and the way to his eternal favour. This is that 
jneble study which is every mail's duty, and every one 
i| who can be called a rational creature is capable of it, 
'This is that science which would truly enlarge the minds 
jot" men, were it studied with that freedom, that unbias- 
sed love of truth, and that sacred charity which it teach- 
es ; and if it were not made, contrary to its own nature, 
| the occasion of strife, faction, malignity, a narrow spirit, 
I and unreasonable impositions on the mind and practice., 
I Let this, therefore, stand always chief. 

XI. Let every particular study have due and proper 
time assigned it, and let not a favourite science prevail 
with you to lay cut such hours upon it, as ought to be 
employed upon the more necessary and more important 
affairs or studies of your profession. Wnen you have, 
according to the best of your discretion, and according 
to the circumstances of your life, fixed proper hours for 
particular studies, endeavour to keep to those rules ; not 
indeed with a superstitious preciseness, but with some 
good degrees of a regular constancy. Order and method 
in a course of study saves much time, and makes large 
improvements ; such a fixation of certain hours will 
have a happy influence to secure you from trifling and 
wasting away your minutes in impertinence. 

XII. Do not apply yourself to any one study at one 
time longer than the mind is capable of giving a close 
attention to it without weariness or wandering, Do not 
ovei -fatigue the spirits at any time, lest the mind be 
seized with a lassitude, and thereby be tempted to nau- 
seate and grow tired of a particular subject before you 
have finished it. 

XIII. In the beginning of your application to any new 
subject be not too uneasy under present difficulties that 
occur, nor too importunate and impatient for answers 
and solutions to any questions that arise. Perhaps a little 
more study, a little further acquaintance with the sub- 
ject, a little time and experience, will solve those diffi- 
culties, untie the knot, and make your doubts vanish ; 
especially if you are under the instruction of a tutor, he 
can inform you that your inquiries are perhaps too early, 
and that you have not yet iearned those principles unoq 
which the solution of such a difficulty depends, 

b 2 



118 OS STUDY, OR MEDITATION". 

XIV. Do not expect to arrive at certainty in everyij 
subject which you pursue. There are a hundred things);] 
wherein we mortals in this dark and imperfect stale! j 
must be content with probability, where our best lightrf 
and reasonings will reach no further. We must balance'a 
arguments as justly as we can, and where we cannotjr 
find weight enough on either side to determine the scaled 
with sovereign force aad assurance, we must contents 
ourselves perhaps with a small preponderation. This 
will give us a probable opinion, and those probabilities^ 
are sufficient for the daily determination of a thousand! 
actions in human life, and many times even in matters} 
of religion. j 

It is admirably well expressed by a late writer,)' 
u When there is a great strength of argument set before} 
us, if we will refuse to do what appears most fit for usj 
until every little objection be removed, we shall never) 
take one wise resolution as long as we live." 

Suppose I had been honestly and long searching what 
religion I should choose, and yet I could not find that| 
the arguments in defence of Christianity arose to com-j 
plete certainty, but went only so far as to give me aJ 
probable evidence of the truth of it ; though many diffi-i 
culties still remained, yet I should think myself obliged! 
to receive and practise that religion ; for the God of} 
nature and reason has bound us to assent, and act ac-l 
cording to the best evidence we have, even though it be' 
not absolute and complete ; and as he is our supremej 
Judge, his abounding goodness and equity will approve} 
and acquit the man whose conscience honestly and wil- 
lingly seeks the best light, and obeys it as far as he can 
discover it. 

But in matters of great importance in religion, let him, 
join all due diligence with earnest and humble prayer! 
for divine aid in his inquiries ; such prayer and such' 
diligence as eternal concerns require, and such as he 
may plead with courage before the Judge of all. 

XV. Endeavour to apply every speculative study, 
as far as possible, to some practical use, that both your-i 
self and others may be the better for it. Inquiries even 
in natural philosophy should not be mere amusements, 
and much less in the affairs of religion. Researches 
into the springs of natural bodies and their motions should 
lead men to invent happy methods for the ease and con- 
venience of human life; or at least they should be im* 



I OE STUDY, OR MEDITATI05T. 119 

proved to awaken us to admire the wondrous wisdom and 
i; contrivance of God our Creator, in ail the works of nature, 
ij If we pursue mathematical speculations, they will in- 
ure us to attend closely to any subject, to seek and gain 
j clear ideas, to distinguish truth from falsehood, to judge 
ij justly, and to argue strongly ; and these studies do more 
f d:rectiy furnish us with all the various rules of those 
j useful arts of life, viz. measuring, building, sailing, &c. 
Even our inquiries and disputations about vacuum or 
space, and atoms, about incommensurable quantities, 
j and infinite divisibility of matter, and eternal duration, 
which seem to be purely speculative, will show us some 
good practical lessons, will lead us to see the weakness 
of our nature, and should teach us humility in arguing 
upon divine subjects and matters of sncred revelation. 
This should guard us against rejecting any doctrine 
which is expressly and evidently revealed, though we 
cannot fully understand it. It is good sometimes to lose 
and bewilder ourselves in such studies for this very rea- 
son, and to attain this practical advantage, this improve- 
ment in true modesty of spirit. 

XVI. Though we should always be ready to change 
our sentiments of things upon just conviction of their 
falsehood, yet there is not the same necessity of chang- 
ing our accustomed methods of reading, or study and 
practice, even though we have not been led at hist into 
the happiest method. Our thoughts may be true, though 
we may have hit upon an improper order of thinking. 
Truth does not always depend upon the most convenient 
method. There may be a certain form and order in 
which we have long accustomed ourselves to range our 
ideas and notions, which may be best for us now, though 
it was not originally best in itself. The inconveniencies 
of changing may be much greater than the conveniencies 
we could obtain by a new method. 

As for instance ; if a man in his younger days has 
ranged all his sentiments in theology in the method of 
Ames's Medulla Theologian, or Bishop Usher's Body of 
Divinity, it may be much more natural and easy for nim. 
to continue to dispose all his further acquirements in 
the same order, though perhaps neither of those trea- 
tises are in themselves written in the most perfect 
method. So when we have long- fixed our cases of 
shelves in a library, and ranged our books in any par- 
ticular order, viz. according to their languages, or ac- 



1%Q OF FIXING THE ATTENTION", 

cording to their subjects, or according to the alphabet- 
ical names of the authors, &c, we are perfectly well ac- 
quainted with the order in which they now stand, and 
we can find any particular book which we seek, or add 
a new book which we have purchased.with much great- 
er ease than we can do in finer cases of shelves, where 
the books ranged in any different manner whatso- 
ever, any different position of the volumes would be 
new, and strange, and troublesome to us, and would not 
countervail the inconveniencies of a change. 

So if a man of forty years old has been taught to hold 
his pen awkwardly in his youth, and yet writes suffi- 
ciently well for ail the purposes of his station, it is not 
worth while to teach him now the most accurate meth- 
ods of handling that instrument; for this would create 
him more trouble without equal advantage, and per- 
haps he might never attain to write better after he has 
placed his fingers perfectly right with this new accuracy 

CHAP. XV. 
Ofjixing the Attention r . 

A STUDENT should labour, by ah proper methods, 
to acquire a steady fixation of thought. Attention is a 
very necessary thing in order to improve cur minds. 
The evidence of truth does not always appear immedi- ] 
ately, nor strike the soul at first sight. It is by long at- 
tention and inspection that we arrive at evidence, and j 
it is for want of it we judge falsely of many things. We 
make haste to determine upon a slight and a sudden 
view, we confirm our guesses which arise irom a glance, . 
we pass a judgment while we have but a confused or j 
obscure perception, and thus plunge ourselves into mis- 1 
takes. This is like a man, who walking in a mis:, or I 
being at a great distance from any visible object, (sup- , 
pose a tree, a man, a horse, or a church 4 ) judges much | 
amiss of the figure and situation and colours of it, and j 
sometimes takes one for the other ; whereas, if he would j 
but withhold his judgment till he came nearer to it, or ' 
stay till clearer light comes, and then would fix his eyes ■ 
longer upon it, he' would secure himself from those mis- i 
takes. 

Now, in order to gain a greater facility of attention I 
"we may observe these rules: 



©E FIXING THE ATTENTWSr. 121 

ij i- Get a good liking to the study or knowledge vou 
would pursue. We may observe, that there is not much 
difficulty in confining the mind to contemplate what we 
jhave a great desire to know ; and especially if thev are 
jmatters of sense, or ideas which paint themselves upon 
(the fancy. It is but acquiring an hearty good will and 
'resolution to search out and survey the various proper- 
ties and parts of such objects, and our attention will be 
engaged, if there be any delight or diversion in the study 
or contemplation of them. Therefore mathematical 
studies have a strange influence towards fixing the at- 
tention of the mind, and giving a steadiness to a wander- 
ing disposition, because they deal much in lines, figures, 
and numbers ; which affect and please the sense and 
imagination. Histories have a strong tendency the same 
wav, for they engage the soul bv a variety of sensible 
occurrences; when it hath begun, it knows not how to 
leave off; it longs to know the final event, through a 
natural curiosity that belongs to mankind Voyages 
and travels, and accounts of strange countries and 
strange appearances, will assist in this work. This sort 
of study detains the mind by the perpetual occurrence 
and expectation of something new, and that which may 
gratefully strike the imagination. 

II. Sometimes we may make use of sensible things 

j and corporeal images for the illustration of those notions 
j which are more abstracted and intellectual. Therefore 
diagrams greatly assist the mind in astronomy and phi- 
j josophy; and the emblems of virtues and Vices may 
na ppily teach children, ?ud pleasingly impress those 
us efui moral ideas on yrwig mir ds, which perhaps might 
be conveyed to them w : th much more difficulty by mere 
moral and abstracted discourses. 

I confess, in this practice of representing moral sub- 
jects by pictures, we should be cautious lest we so far 
immerse the mind in corporeal images, as to render ii 
unfit to take in an abstracted and intellectual idea, or 
cause it to form wron^ conceptions of immaterial things. 
This practice, therefore, is rather to be used at first in 
order to get a fixed habit of attention, and in some cases 
only ; but it can never be our constant way and method 
of pursuing all moral, abstracted, and spiritual themes. 

III. Apply yourself to those studies, and read those 
authors who draw out their subjects into a perpetual 
chain of connected reasonings, wherein the following 



1,22 OF FIXING THE ATTENTION. 

parts of the discourse are naturally and easily derived, 
from those which go before. Several of the machemat- C 
ical sciences, if not all, are happily useful tor this pur- | } 
pose. This wili render the labour of study delightful to L- 
a rational mind, and will fix the powers of the under- ' 
standing with strong attention to their proper operations [ 
by the very pleasure of it. Labor ipse voiufitas, is a l } 
happy proposition ; wheresoever it can be applied. j 

IV. Do not choose your constant place of study by ; 
the finery of the prospects, cr the most various and en- j 
tertaming scenes of sensible things. Too mucli light, or 
a variety ot objects which strike the eye, or the ear, es-| 
pecially white they are ever in motion, or often chang- | 
ing, have a natural and powerful tendency to steal away | 
the mind too often from its steady pursuif of any subject I 
which we contemplate; and thereby the soul gets a| 
habit of silly curiosity and impertinence, of trilling and| 
wandering. Vagario thought himself furnished with 
the best closet for his study among the beauties, gaieties, 
and diversions of Kensington or Hampton Court; but 
after seven years professing to pursue learning, he wasi 
a mere novice still. j 

V. Be not in too much haste to come to the determi-i 
nation of a difficult or important point. Think it worth] 
your waiting to find out truth. Do not give your assent J 
up to either side of a question too soon, merely on this 
account, that the study of it is long and difficult. Rath-! 
er be contented with ignorance for a season, and contin-l 
ue in suspense till your attention, and meditation, audi 
due labour, have found out sufficient evidence on one! 
side. Some are so fond to know a great deal at oncej 
and love to talk of things with freedom and boldness be- 
fore they truly uaderstand them, that they scarce-' 
ly ever allow themselves attention enough to search the 
matter through and through. 

VI. Have a care of indulging the more sensual pas-] 
sions and appetites of animal nature ; they are great 
enemies to attention. Let not the mind of a student be: 
under the influence of any warm affection to things ot 
sense, when he comes to engage in the search of truth 01 ; 
the improvement of his understanding. A person under 
the power of love, or fear, or anger, great pain, or deep 
sorrow, hath so little government of his soul, that he can-] 
not keep it attentive to the proper subject of his medi- 
tation. The passions call away the thoughts with m^ 

i 



CAPACITY OF THE MINO. 123 

cessant importunity towards the object that excited 
them'; and if we indulge the frequent rise and roving 
of passions, we shall thereby procure an unsteady and 
inattentive habit of mind. 

Yet this one exception must be admitted, viz. If we 
can be so happy as to' engage any passion of the soul on 
the side of the particular study which we a-e pursuing, 
it may have great influence to fix the attention more 
strongly to it. 

VII." It is therefore very useful to fix and engage the 
mind in the pursuit of any study, by a consideration of 
the divine pleasures of truth and knowledge, by a sense 
of our duty to God, by a delight in the exercise of our 
intellectual faculties, by the hope of future service to 
our fellow creatures, afra glorious advantage to ourselves, 
both in this \vorld M and that which is to come. These 
thoughts, though, they ma!y move our affections, yet 
they do it with a proper influence ; these will rather as- 
sist and promote our attention, than disturb or divert it 
from the subject of our present and proper meditations, 
A soul inspired with the fondest love of truth, and the 
warmest aspirations after sincere felicity and celestial 
beatitude, will keep ail its powers attentive to the inces- 
sant pursuit of them ; passion is then refined and conse- 
crated to its divinest purposes. 

CHAP. XVI. 

Of Enlarging the Capacity of the Mind. 

THERE are three things which in an especial manner 
go to make up that amplitude . or capacity of mind, 
which is one of the noblest characters belonging to the 
understanding : (1 ) When the mind is ready to take in 
great and sublime ideas without pain or difficulty. (2.) 
When the mind is free to receive new and strange ideas, 
upon just evidence, without great surprise or aversion. 
(3.) When the mind is able to conceive or survey many 
ideas at once without confusion, and to form a true judg- 
ment derived from that extensive survey. The person 
who wants either of these characters, may in that re- 
spect b^ said to have a narrow genius. Let us diffuse 
our meditations a little upon this subject, 



£24 OF ENLARGING THK 

I. That is an ample and capacious mind which is, 
ready to take in vast and sublime ideas without pain dr 
difficulty. Persons who have never been used to con 
verse with any thing but the common, little, and obviou^ 
affJrs of life, have acquired a narrow or contracted 
habit of soul, that they are not able to stretch their in-j 
tellects wide enough to admit large and noble thoughts i 
they are ready to make their domestic, daily, and fa- 1 
miliar images of things, the measure of all that is, and 
all that can be. 

Talk to them of the vast dimensions of the planetary! 
worlds ; tell them that the star called Jupiter is a solid 
globe, two hundred and vwenty times bigger than out! 
earth ; that the sun is a vast giobe of fire, above a thouj 
sand times bigger than Jupiter, that is, two hundrec 
and twenty thousand times bigger than the e?.rth ; that 
the distance from the earth to the sun is eighty one mil^ 
lions of miles ; and that a cannon bullet shot from tii? 
earth would not arrive at the nearest of the fixed staH 
in some hundreds of" years ; they cannot bear the belie! 
of it, but hear all these glorious labours of astronomy as 
a mere idle romance. 

Inform them of the amazing swiftness of the motion, 
of some of the smallest or the biggest bodies in nature;; 
assure them, according to the best philosophy, that the 
planet Venus, (i. e. our morning or evening star, which 1 
is near as big as our earth,) though it seems to move 
from its place but a few yards in a month, does really! 
fly seventy thousand miles in an hour; tell them thatl 
the rays of light shoot from the sun to our earth at the! 
rate of one hundred and eighty thousand miles in thi 
second of a minute ; they stand aghast at such sort ol 
talk, and believe it no more than the tales of giants fif- 
ty yards high, <md the rabbinical fables of LeviathanJ 
who every day swallows a fish of three miles long, anq 
is thus preparing himself to be the food and entertain-; 
men.t of the blessed at the feast at Paradise. 

These unenlarged souls are in the same manner dis- 
gusted with the wonders which the microscope has dis- 
covered concerning the shape, the limbfc, and motions oi 
ten thousand little animals, whose united bulk would not 
equal a peppercorn ; they are ready to give the lie Id 
all the improvements of cur senses by the invention off 
variety of glasses, and will scarcely believe any thin£ 



CAPACITY 02 THE MIND. 125 

S&yand the testimony of the naked eye, without the as- 
sistance of art. 

Now, if we would attempt in a learned manner to re- 
lieve the minds that labour under this defect : 

(1.) It is useful to begin with some first principles of 
geometry, and lead them onward by degrees to the doc- 
trine of quantities which are incommensurable, or which 
will admit of no common measure, though it be never 
so small. By this means they will see the necessity of 
admitting the infinite divisibility of quantity or matter. 

This same doctrine may also be proved to their un- 
derstandings, and almost to their senses, by some easier 
arguments in a more obvious manner. As the very op- 
ening and closing of a pair of compasses will evidently 
prove, that if the smallest supposed part of matter or 
quantity be put between the points, there will be still 
less and less distances or quantities all the way between 
the legs, till you come to the head or joint ; wherefore 
there is no such thing possible fts the smallest quantity. 
But a little acquaintance with true philosophy and 
mathematical learning would soon teach them, that 
there are no limits either as to the extension of space, 
or to the division of body, and would lead them to be- 
lieve there are bodies amazingly great or small beyond 
their present imagination. 

(2.) It is proper also to acquaint them with the cir- 
cumference of our earth, which may be proved by very 
easy principles of geometry, geography, and astronomy, 
to be about twenty four thousand miles round, as it has 
been actually found to have this dimension by mariners, 
who have sailed round it. Then let them be taught, 
that in every twenty four hours, either the sun and stars 
must all move round this earth, or the earth must turn 
round upon its own axis. If the earth itself revolve thus, 
then each houne or mountain near the equator, must 
move at the rate of a thousand miles in an hour ; but if 
(as they generally suppose) the sun or stars move round 
the earth, then (the circumference of their several or- 
bits or spheres being vastly greater than this earth) they 
must have a motion prodigiously swifter than a thousand 
miles an hour. Such a thought as this will by degrees 
enlarge their minds ; and they will be taught, even up- 
on their own principles of the diurnal revolutions of the 
heavens, to fake in some of the vast dimensions of the 
'heavenly bodies, their spaces and (notions. 
M 



126 OE ENLARGING THE 

(3. ) To this should be added the use of telescopes, to i 
help them to see the distant wonders in the skies ; and 
microscopes, which discover the minutest parts of little 
animals, and reveal some of the finer and more curious 
works of nature. They should be acquainted also with. I 
some other noble inventions of modern philosophy, which | 
have a great influence to enlarge the human under- | 
standing, of which I shall take occasion to. speak more } 
under the next head. 

(4 ) For the same purpose they may be invited to \ 
read those parts of Milton's admirable poem, entitled j 
Paradise Lost, where he describes the armies and pow- ( 
ers of angels, the wars and the senate of devils, the ere- • 
ation of this earth, together with the descriptions of 
heaven, hell, and paradise. 

It must be granted that poesy often deals in these 
vast and sublime ideas. And even if the subject of | 
matter of the poem doth not require such amazing and | 
extensive thoughts, yet tropes and figures, which aref 
some of the main powers and beauties of poesy, do soj 
gloriously exalt the matter, as to give a sublime imag- 1 
ination its proper relish and delight. 

So when a boar is chased in hunting, 

Kis nostrils flames expire, 

And his red eye balls roll with, living fire. Druden. 

When Ulysses withholds and suppresses his resentment, 

His wrath comprest. 

Recoiling, muttev'd Uiunder in his breast Pope. 

But especially where the subject is grand, the poet, 
fails not to represent it in all its grandeur. 
So when the supremacy of God is described : } 

He sees with equal eye, as God of all, 

A hero perish, or a sparrow fall : 

Atoms or systems into ruin huri'd ; ( 

And now a bubble burst, and now a world Pope. 

{ 

These sorts of writing have a natural tendency to en- j 
large the capacity of the mind, and make sublime id-as > 
familiar to it. And instead of running always to the j 
ancient Heathen poesy with this design, we may with \ 
equal, if not superior advantage, apply ourselves to con-j 
verse with some of the best of our modern poets, as wettj 
as with the writings of the prophets, and the poetical 
parts of the Bible, viz. the book of Job and the Psalms,, 



CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 127 

in which sacred authors we shall find sometimes more 
sublime ideas, more glorious descriptions, more elevat- 
ed language, than the fondest critics have ever found 
in any ot the Heathen versifiers either of Greece or 
Rome; for the eastern writers use and allow much 
stronger figures and tropes than the western. 

Now there are many great and sacred advantages to 
be derived from this sort of enlargement of the mind. 

It >vill lead us into more exalted apprehensions of the 
great God our Creator than ever we had before. It will 
entertain our thoughts with holy wonder and amaze- 
ment, while we contemplate that Being who created 
these various works of surprising greatness, and sur- 
prising smaliness ; who has displayed most inconceiva- 
ble wisdom in the contrivance of all the parts, powers, 
and motions of these little animals, invisible to the nak- 
ed eye; who has manifested a most divine extent of 
knowledge, power, and greatness, in forming, moving, 
and managing the most extensive bulk of the heavenly 
bodies, and in surveying and comprehending all those 
immeasurable spaces in which they move. Fancy, with 
all her images, is fatigued and overwhelmed in follow- 
ing the planetary worlds through such immense stages, 
such astonishing journies as these are, and resigns its 
place to the pure intellect, which learns by degrees to 
take in such ideas as these, and to adore its Creator 
with new and sublime devotion. 

And not only are we taught to form juster ideas of 
the great God by these methods, but this enlargement 
of the mind carries us on to nobler conceptions of his in- 
telligent creatures. The mind that deals oniy in vul- 
gar and common ideas, is ready to imagine the nature 
and powers of man to come something too near to God 
his Maker, because we do not see or sensibly converse 
with any beings superior to ourselves. But when the 
soul has obtained a greater amplitude of thought, it will 
not then immediately pronounce every thing to be God 
which is above man. It then learns to suppose the: e 
may be as many various ranks of beings in the invisible 
world, in a constant gradation superior to us, as we our- 
selves are superior to all the ranks of being beneath us 
in this visible world ; even though we descend down- 
ward far below the ant and the worm, the snail and the 
oyster, to the least and to the dullest animated atoms 
which are discovered to us by microscopes. 



128 OF ENLARGING TUB 

By this means we shall oe able to suppose what pre- 
digtous power angels, whether good or bad, mus>: be fur- j 
nished with, and prodigious know sedge, in order to over- ! 
see the realms of Persia and Grscia of old, or si" any j 
such superintend the affairs of Great 'Bri am, France, J 
Ireland, Germany, &c. in our da> s : What power and I 
speed is necessary to destroy one hundred and eighty ' 
five thousand armed men in one night m the Assyrian. [ 
camp of Sennacherib, and all the first born in the laud 
of Egypt in another, both which are attributed to an j 
angel. 

By these steps we shall ascend to form more just ideas 
of the knowledge and grandeur, the power ano glory of 
the man, Jesus Christ, who is intimately united to G d, 
and is one with him. Doubtless he is furnished wich su- 
perior powers to all the angels in heaven, oecause he is 
employed in superior work, and appointed to be the j 
Sovereign Lord of all the visible and invisible worlds. I 
It is his human nature, in which the Godhead dwells | 
bodily, that is advanced to these honours, and to this I 
empire; and perhaps there is little or nothing in thej 
government of the kingdoms of nature and grace, but I 
what is transacted by the man Jesus, inhabited by the | 
divine power and wisdom, and employed as a medium j 
or conscious instrument of this extensive gubefnation. 

II. I proceed now to consider the next thing where- | 
in the capacity or amplitude of the mind consis's, and j 
that is, when the mind is free to receive new and strange 
ideas and propositions upon just evidence, without any I 
great surprise or aversion. Those who confine them- | 
selves within the circle of their own hereditary ideas 
and opinions, and who never give themselves leave so jj 
much as to examine or believe any thing b« side the dic- 
tates of their own family, or sect, or party, are justly 
charged with a narrowness of soul. Let us survey some 
instances of this imperfection, and then direct to the 
cure of it. 

(1.) Persons who have been bred up all their davs 
Within the smoke of their father's chirnnev, or within 
the limits of their native town and village, .ire surprised 
at every new sight that appears, when thev travel a 
few miles from home. The ploughman stands amazed at 
the shops, the trade, the crowds cf people, them^g: ifi- 
cent buildings, the pomp, the riches, and equip'ge of 
the court and city, and would hardly believe what wa$ J 



CAPACITY OE THE MIND. 129 

told him before he saw it. On the other hand, the cock- 
ney, travelling into the country, is surprised at many- 
actions of the quadruped and winged animals in the field, 
and at many common practices of rural affairs; 

If either of these happen to hear an account of the 
familiar and daily customs of foreign countries, they 
pronounce them at once indecent and ridiculous ; sonar- 
row are their understandings, and their thoughts so con- 
fined, that they know not how to believe any thing wise 
and proper, besides what they have been taught to 
practise. 

This narrowness of mind should be cured by hearing 
and reading the accounts of different parts of the world', 
and the histories of past ages, and of nations and coun- 
tries distant from our own, especially the more polite 
parts of mankind. Nothing tends in this respect so much. 
to enlarge the mind as travelling, i. e. making a visit to 
oilier towns, cities, or countries, besides those in which 
we were born and educated : and where our condition 
of life does not grant us this privilege, we must endeav- 
our to supply the want of it by books. 

(2.) It is the same narrowness of mind that awakens 
the surprise and aversion of some persons, when they 
hear of doctrines and schemes in human affairs, or in 
religion, quite different from what they have embraced. 
Perhaps they have been trained up from their infancy 
in one set of notions, and their thoughts have been con- 
fined to one single tract both in the civil or religious life, 
without ever hearing or knowing what other opinions 
are current among mankind ; or at least they have seen 
all ether notions besides their own represented in a false 
and malignant light,w hereupon they judge and condemn 
at once every sentiment but what their own party re- 
ceives, and they think it a piece of justice and truth to 
lay heavy censures upon the practice of every different 
sect in Christianity or politics. They have so rooted 
themselves in the opinions of their party, that they can- 
not hear an objection with patience, nor can they bear 
a vindication, or so much as an apology, for any set of 
principles beside their own : all the rest is nonsense or 
heresy, folly or blasphemy. 

This defect also is to be relieved by free conversation 
with persons of different sentiments; this will teach us 
to bear with patience a defence of opinions contrary to 
co" o-,vn. If. we are scholars, we should also read the 



130 OP ENLARGING TEE 

objections against our own tenets, and view the princi- 
ples of other parties, as they are represented in then' 
own authors, and not merely in the citations of those 
who would confute them. We should take an honest 
and unbiassed survey of the force of reasoning on all 
sides, and bring all to the test of unprejudiced reason 
and divine revelation. Note, this is not to be done in a 
rash and self sufficient manner, but with a humble de- 
pendence on divine wisdom and grace, while we walk 
amoig snares and dangers. 

By such a free converse with persons of different sects 
(especially those who differ only in particular forms of 
Christianity, but agree in the great and necessary doc- 
trines of it.) we shall find that there are persons of good 
sense and virtue, persons of piety and worth, persons of 
much candour ».nd goodness, who belong to different 
parties, and have imbibed sentiments opposite to each 
other. This will soften the roughness of an unpolished 
soul, and enlarge the avenues of our charity towards 
others, and incline us to receive them into ail the degrees 
of unity and affection, which the word of God requires. 

(3.) I might borrow further illustrations, both of this 
freedom and this aversion to receive new truths, from 
modern astronomy and natural philosophy. How much I 
is the vulgar part of the world surprised, at the talk, of j 
the diurnal and annual revolutions of the earth! They 
have ever been taught by their senses, and their neigh- I 
bours, to imagine the earth stands fixed in toe centre of j 
the universe, and that the sun, with all the planets and 
the fixed stars, are whirled round this little globe once in 
twenty four hours ; not considering that such a diurnal i 
motion, by reason of the distance oi some of those heav- I 
enly bodies, must be almost infinitely swifter, and more ! 
inconceivable than any which the modern astronomers i 
attribute to them. Tell these .persons that the sun is 
fixed in the centre, that the earth, with ail the planets, i 
roll round the sun in their several periods, and that the j 
moon rolls round the earth m a lesser circle, while, to- 
gether with the earth, she is carried round the sun ; they ; 
cannot admit a syllable of this new and strange doc- | 
trine, and they pronounce it utterly contrary to all sense j 
and reason. 

Acquaint them that there are four moons also perpet- i 
ually rolling round the planet Jupiter, and carried along j 
with him in his periodical circuit round the sun, which 



CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 131 

little moons were never known till the year 1610, when 
G ilileo discovered them by his telescope ; inform them 
that Saturn has five moons of the same kind attending 
him ; and that the body of that planet is encompassed 
with a broad, fiat, circular ring, distant from the planet 
twenty one thousand miles, and twenty one thousand 
miles broad; they look upon these things as tales and 
fancies, and will tell you that the glasses do but delude 
your eyes with vast images ; and even when they them- 
selves consult their own eye sight in the use of these 
tubes, the narrowness of their mind is such, that they 
will scarcely believe their senses when they dictate ideas 
so new and strange 

And if you proceed further, and attempt to lead them 
into a belief that all these planetary worlds are habita- 
ble, and it is probable they are replenished with intel- 
lectual beings dwelling in' bodies, they will deride the 
folly of him that informs them ; for they resolve to be- 
lieve there are no habitable worlds but this earth, and no 
spirits dwelling in bodies besides mankind ; and it is well 
it they do not fix the brand of heresy on the man who is 
leading them out of their long imprisonment, and loosing 
the fetters of their souls. 

There are many other things relating to mechanical 
experiments, and to the properties of the air, water, fire, 
iron, the loadstone, and other minerals and metals, as 
well as the doctrine of the sensible qualities, viz. colours, 
sounds, tastes, &c. which this rank of men cannot believe 
for want of a greater amplitude of mind. 

The best way to convince them, is by giving them 
some acquaintance with the various experiments in phi- 
losophy, and proving by ocular demonstration the mul- 
tiform and amazing operations of the air pump, the load- 
stone, the chemical furnace, optical glasses, and mechan- 
ical engines. By tnese means the understanding will 
stretch itself by degrees, and when they have found there 
are so many new and strange things that are most evi- 
dently true, they will not be so forward to condemn every 
new proposition in any of the other sciences, or in the 
affairs of religion or civil life. 

III. The capacity of the understanding includes yet 
another qualification in it, and that is, an ability to re- 
ceive many ideas at once without confusion. The am- 
ple mind takes a survey of several objects with one 
ghnce, keeps them all within sight, and present to the 



132 OE ENLARGING THE 

soui, that they may be compared together in their mu- 
tual respects ; it forms just judgments, and it draws 
proper inferences from this comparison, even to a great 
length or argument, and a chain of demonstrations. 

The narrowness that belongs to human souls in gen- 
eral, is a great imperfection and impediment to wisdom 
and happiness. There are but few persons who can 
contemplate or practise several things at once ; our fac- 
ulties are very limited, and while we are intent upon one 
part or property of a subject, we have but a slight 
glimpse ot the rest, or we lose it out of sight. But it is 
a sign of a large and capacious mind, if we can witli one 
single view take in a variety of objects; or at least when 
the mind can apply itself to several objects with so swift 
a succession, and in so few moments, as attains almost 
the same ends as if it were ail done in the same instant. 

This is a necessary qualification in order to great 
knowledge, and good judgment; for there are several 
things in human life, in religion, and in the sciences, 
which have various circumstances, appendices, and re- 
lations attending them ; and without a survey of all these 
ideas which stand in connexion with, and relation to each 
ether, we are often in danger of passing a false judgment 
on the subject proposed. It is for this reason there are 
so numerous controversies found among the learned and 
unlearned world, in matters of religion, as well as in the 
affairs of civil government. The notions of sin and duly 
to God and cur fellow creatures ; of law, justice, author- 
ity, and power; of covenant, faith, justification, redemp- 
tion* and : grace ; of church, bishop, presbyter, ordina- 
tion, &c. contain in them such complicated ideas, that 
when we are to judge of any thing concerning them, it 
is hard to take into our view at once all the attendai ts 
or consequents that must and will be concerned in the 
determination of a single question; and yet, with, ut a 
due attention to many, or most of these, we .are ii\ dan- 
ger of determining- that question amiss. 

It is owing to the narrowness of our minds, that we 
are exposed to the same peril in the matters of human 
duty and prudence. In many things which we do, we 
ought not only to consider the mere naked action itself, 
but the persons who act, the persons towards whom,the 
time when, the place where, the manner how, the end 
for which the action is done, together with the effi-cts 
that must, or that mav follow, and all othersurroundine 



CAPACITY OE THE MINE, 133 

circumstances : these things must necessarily be taken 
into our view, in order to determine whether the action, 
which is indifferent in itself, be either lawful or unlawful, 
good or evd, wise or foolish, decent or indecent, proper 
or improper, as it is so circumstantiated. 

Let me give a plain instance for the illustration of this 
matter. Mario kills a dog, which, considered merely in 
itself, seems to be an indifferent action ; now the dog 
was Tim; m% and not his own ; this makes it look unlaw- 
ful. But Timon bid him do it ; this gives it an appear- 
ance of lawfulness again. It was dooe at church, and 
in time of divine service; these circumstances added, 
cast on it an air of irreligion. But the dog flew at Ma- 
rio, and put him in danger of his life ; this relieves the 
seeming impiety of the action. Yet Mario might have 
escaped by flying thence ; therefore the action appears 
to be improper. But the dog was known to be mad; 
this further circumstance makes it almost necessary 
that the dog should be slain, lest he might worry the as- 
sembly, and do much mischief Yet again, Mario killed 
him with a pistol, which he happened to have in his 
pocket since yesterday's journey ; now hereby the whole 
congregation was terrified and discomposed, and divine 
service was broken off: this carries an appearance of 
great indecency and impropriety in it : but after all, 
when we consider a further circumstance, that Mario, 
being thus violently assaulted by a mad dog, had no way 
of escape, and had no other weapon about him, it seems 
to take away all the colours of impropriety, indecency, 
or unlawfulness, and to allow that the preservation of 
one or many lives will justify the act as wise and good. 
Now ail these concurrent appendices of the action ought 
to be surveyed, in order to pronounce with justice and 
truth concerning it. 

There ar^ a multitude of human actions in private 
life, in domestic affairs, in traffic, in civil government, 
in courts of justice, in schools of learning, &c. which 
have so many complicated circumstances, aspects, and 
situations, with regard to time and place, persons and 
things, that it is impossible for any one to pass a right 
judgment concerning them, without entering into most 
of these circumstances, and surveying them extensively, 
ani comparing ana balancing them all aright 

Whence, by the way, I may take occasion to say, 
13otv many thousands are there who take upon them to 



134 OF ENLARGING THE 

pass their censures on the personal and the domestic 
actions of others, who p< on ounce boldly on the affairs 
of the public, and determine the justice or madness, the 
wisdom or folly of national administrations, of peace and 
war, &c. whom neither God nor men ever qualified for | 
such a post of judgment ? They were not capable of en- 
tering into the numerous concurring springs of action,nor 
had they ever taken a survey of the twentieth part of 
the circumstances which were necessary for such judg- 
ments or censures. 

It is the narrowness of our minds, as well as the vices 
of the will, that oftentimes prevents us from taking a 
full view of all the complicated and concurring appendi- 
ces that belong to human actions: thfnce it comes to 
pass, that there is so little right judgment, so little jus- 
tice, prudence, or decency, practised among the bulk of 
mankind ; thence arise infinite reproaches and censures, 
alike foolish and unrighteous. You see, therefore, how 
needful and happy a thing it is to be possesed of some 
measure of this amplitude of soul, in order to make us 
very wise, or knowing, or just, or prudent, or happy. ^ 

I confess this sort of amplitude or capacity of mind is 
in a great measure the gift of nature, for some are born 
with much more capacious souls than others. 

The genius of some, persons is so poor and limited, that 
thev cm hardly take in the connexion of two or three 
propositions, unless it be in matters of sense, ana which 
they have learned by experience ; they are utterly unfit 
for speculative studies ; it is hard for them to discei n the 
difference betwixt right and wrong in matters of reason, 
' on any abstracted subjects ; these ought never to sot up 
for scholars, but apply themselves to those arts and pro- 
fessions of life which are to be learned at an easier tate, 
by slow degrees, and daily experience. 

' Others have a soul a little more capacious, and they 
can take in the connexion oi' a few propositions pretty 
well ; but if the chain of consequences be a little prolix, 
here they stick and are confounded. It persons of this 
make ever devote themselve ■ to science, they should be 
well assured of a solid and strong constitution of body, 
and well resolved to bear the fatigue cf hard labour and 
diligence in study : if the iron be blurt, king Solomon 
tells us, we must put more strength. 

But, in the third place, there are some of so bright 
and happy a genius, and so ample a mind, that they can 



CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 135 

tike in a long train of propositions, if not at once, yet in 
a very few moments, and judge well concerning the de- 
pendence of them. They can survey a variety of com- 
plicated ideas without fatigue or disturbance ; and a 
number of truths offering themselves as it were in one 
view to their understanding, doth not perplex or con- 
found them. This makes a great man. 

Now, though there may b^much owing to nature in 
this case, yet experience assures us, that even a lower 
degree of this capacity and extent of thought, may be 
increased by diligence and application, by frequent ex- 
ercise, and die observation of such rules as these : 

I. Labour by all means to gain an attentive and pa- 
tient temper of mind, a power of confining and fixing 
your thoughts so long on any one appointed subject, till 
you have surveyed it on every side and in every situa- 
tion, and run through the several powers, parts, pro- 
perties and relations, effects and consequences of it. 
He whose thoughts are very Muttering and wandering, 
and cannot be fixed attentively to a few ideas succes- 
sively, will never be abie to survey many and various 
objects distinctly at once, but will certainly be over- 
whelmed and confounded with the. multiplicity of them. 
The rules for fixing the attention in the former chapter 
are. proper to be consulted here. 

II. Accustom yourself to clear and distinct ideas in 
every thing ycu think of. Be not satisfied with obscure 
and confused conceptions of things, especially where 
clearer may be obtained ; for one obscure or confused 
idea, especially ii: it be of great importance in the ques- 
tion, intermingled with many clear ones, and placed in 
its variety of aspects towards them, will be in danger of 
spreading confusion over the whole fecene of ideas, and 
thus may have an unhappy influence to overwhelm the 
understanding with darkness, and pervert the judgment. 
A little black paint will shamefully tincture and spoil 
twenty gay colours. 

Consider yet further, that if you content yourself fre- 
quently with words instead of ideas, or with cloudy and 
confused notions of things, how impenetrable will that 
darkness be, and how vast and endless that confusion, 
which must surround and involve the understanding, 
when many of these obscure and canfused ideas come to 
be set before the soul at once ? And how impossible will 
it be to form a clear and just judgment about them ? 



136 ©B ENLARGING THE, 

III. Use all diligence to acquire and treasure up & \ 
large store of ideas and notions ; take every opportune- k 
ty to add something to your stock, and by frequent rec- (: 
ollection fix them in your memory ; nothing tends to » 
confirm and enlarge the memory likeafrequent review of \] 
its possessions. Then the brain being well furnished with jj 
various traces, signatures, and images, will have a rich Is 
treasure always ready to be proposed, or offered to the jj 
soui, when it directs its thought towards any particular 
subject. This will gradually give the mind a faculty of b 
surveying many objects at once; as a room that is rich- jj 
ly adorned and hung round with a great variety of pic- j> 
tures strikes the eye almost at once with all that varie- | 
ty, especially if they have been well surveyed one by p 
one at first ; this makes it habitual and more easy to k 
the inhabitants to take in many of those painted scenes [ 
with a single glance or two. 

Here note, that by acquiring a rich treasure of no- i 
tions, I do not mean only single ideas, but also proposi- 
tions, observations, and experiences, with reasonings and 
arguments upon the various subjects that occur among \ 
natural and mora), common or sacred affairs ; that when j 
you are called to judge concerning any question, you will j 
have some principles of truth, some useful axioms and | 
observations, always ready at hand to direct and assist j 
your judgment. 

IV, It is necessary that we should as far as possible \ 
entertain and lay up our daily new ideas in a regular i 
order, and range the acquisitions of our souls under pro » j 
per heads, whether of divinity, law, physics, mathemat* ( 
ics, morality, politics, trade, domestic life, civility, de- ! 
cency, Sec. whether of cause, effect, substance, mode, j 
power, property, body, spirit, &c. We should inure 
our minds to method and order continually ; and when i 
we take in any fresh ideas, occurrences, and observa- | 
tions, we should dispose of them in their proper places, 
and see how they stand and agree with the rest of our 
notions on the same subjects ; as a scholar would dispose 
of a new book on a proper shelf among its kindred au- 
thors ; or as an officer at the post house in London dis- 
poses of every letter he takes in, placing it in the box 
that belongs to the proper road or county. 

In any of these cases, if things lay all in a heap, the 
addition of any new object would increase the contusion; 
but method gives a speedy and short survey of them 



CAPACITY OP THE MIND. 1$7 

with ease and pleasure. Method is of admirable ad- 
vantage to keep our ideas from a confused mixture, and 
to preserve them ready for every use. The science of 
onthology, which distributes all beings, and all the affec- 
tions of b ;ing-, whether absolute or relative, under pro- 
per classes, is of good service to keep our intellectual 
acquisitions in such order as that the mind may survey 
them at once. 

V. As method is necessary for the improvement of 
the mind, in order to make your treasure of ideas most 
useful ; so in all your further pursuits of truth, and ac- 
quirements of rational knowledge, observe a regular 
progressive method. Begin with the most simple, easy, 
and obvious ideas; then by degrees join two, and three, 
and more of them together ; thus the complicated ideas 
growing up under your eye and observation, will not 
give the same confusion of thought as they would do if 
they were all offered to the mind at once, without your 
observing the original and formation of them. 

An eminent example of this appears in the study of 
arithmetic. If a scholar just admitted into the school 
observes his master performing an operation in the rule 
of division, his head is at once disturbed and confounded 
with the manifold comparisons of the numbers of the 
divisor and dividend, and the multiplication of the one 
and subtraction of it from the other ; but if he begin 
regularly at addition, and so proceed by subtraction and 
multiplication, he will then in a few weeks be able to 
take in an intelligent survey of all those operations in di- 
vision, and to practise them himself with ease and pleas- 
ure, each of which at first seemed all intricacy and 
confusion. 

An illustration of the like nature may be borrowed 
from geometry and algebra, and other mathematical 
practices. How easily does an expert geometrician, 
with one glance of his eye, take in a complicated dia- 
gram, made up of many lines and circles, angles and 
arches? How readily does he judge of it, whether the 
demonstration designed by it be true or false ? It was 
by degrees he arrived at this stretch of understanding ; 
he began with a single line or a point ; he joined two 
lines in an angle ; he advanced to triangles and squares, 
polygons and circles; thus the powers ot his understand- 
ing were stretched and augmented daily, till by dili- 
K 



133 05 EffLARGIKG THE, &C. 

gence and regular application, he acquired this exten- f 
ssive faculty of mind. 

But this advantage does not belong only to mathe-^ 
matical learning. If we apply ourselves at first in anyk 
science to clear and single ideas, and never hurry our^ 
selves on to the following and more complicated parts oL 
knowledge, till we thoroughly understand the foregoing,! 
we may practise the same method of enlarging the ca-: 
pacity of the soul with success in any one of the scien- 
ces, or in the affairs of life and religion. 

Beginning with A, B, C, and making syllables out of 
letters, and words out of syllables, has been the founda-! 
tion of all that glorious superstructure of arts and scien-j 
ces, which have enriched the minds and libraries of thei, 
learned world in several ages. These are the first steps! 
by which the ample and capacious souis among man-l, 
kind have arrived at that prodigious extent of knowl-i, 
edge, which renders them the wonder and glory of the, 
nation where they live. Though Plato and Cicero, 
Descartes and Mr. Boyle, Mr. Locke and Sir Isaac* 
Newton, were doubtless'favoured by nature with a gen-i, 
ius of uncommon amplitude, yet,in their early years andj; 
first attempts of science, this was but limited and nar-i 
row, in comparison of what they attained at last. But|, 
how vast and capacious were those powers which they' 
afterwards acquired by patient attention and watchful L 
observation, by the pursuit of clear ideas, and a regular', 
method of thinking ! 

VI. Another means of acquiring this amplitude audi 
capacity of mind, is a perusal of difficulty entangledl 
questions, and of the solution of them in any science.- 
Speculative and casuistical divinity will furnish us with) 
many such cases and controversies. There are some ^ 
such difficulties in reconciling several parts of the Epis-k 
ties of St. Paul, relating to the Jewish law and thej, 
Christian gospei; a happy so'ution whereof will require,; 
such an extensive view of things, and the reading off 
these happy solutions will enlarge this faculty in youn-j[ 
ger students. L 

In moral and political subjects. Puffendorf's Law of | 
Nature and Nations, and several determinations therein,; 
will promote the same amplitude of mind. An attend- 1 
ance on public trials and arguments in the civil courtsjf 
of justice, will be of good advantage for this purpose ;! 
and after a man has studied the general principles of 

i 



OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 139 



jthe law of nature and the laws of England in proper 
jbooks, the reading the reports of adjudged eases, col- 
lected by men of great sagacitv and judgment, will rich 
!Iy improve his mind toward acquiring this desirable am - 
jplitnde and extent of thought, and more especially in 
persons of that profession. 

CHAP XVII. 
Of Improving the Memonj* 

MEMORY is a distinct faculty of the mind of man, 
very different from perception, judgment, and rea- 
soning, and its other powers. 1 hen we are said tore- 
member any thing, when the idea of it arises in the 
mind with a consciousness "at the same time that we 
have had this idea before. Our memory is our natur- 
al p w er of retaining what we learn, and of recalling 
it on evsry occasion. Therefore Ave can never be said 
to remember any thing, whether it be ideas or propo- 
sitions, words or things, notions or. Arguments, of which 
we have not had some former idea or perception, either 
by sense or im agination,th ought or reflection; but what- 
soever we learn from observation, books, or conver- 
sation, &c. it must all be laid up and preserved in the 
memory, if we would make it really useful. 

So necessary and so excellent a faculty is the mem- 
ory of man, that all other abilities of the mind borrow 
from hence their beauty and perfection ; for the other 
capacities of the soul are almost useless without this. 
To what purpose are all our labours in knowledge and 
wisdom, if we want memory to preserve and use what 
we have acquired ? What signify all other intellectual 
or spiritual improvements, if they are lost as soon as 
they are obtained ? It is memory alone that enriches 
the mind, by preserving what our labour and industry 
daily collect. In a word, there can be neither knowl- 
edge, nor arts, nor sciences, without memory ; nor can 
there be anv improvement of mankind in virtue or 
morals, or the practice of religion, without the assist- 
ance and influence of this power. Without memory 
the soul of man would be but a poor, destitute, naked 
being, with an everlasting blank spread over it, except 
the fleeting ideas of the present moment. 



140 OE IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 

Memory is very useful to those who speak, as well I] 
as to those who learn. It assists the teacher and the n 
orator, as well as the scholar or the hearer The best l> 
speeches and instructions are almost lost, if those who p 
hear them immediately forget them. And those who f 
are called to speak in public are much better heard |> 
and accepted, when they can deliver their discourse i 
by the help of a lively genius and a ready memory, j 
than when they are forced to read all that they would i 
communicate to their hearers. Reading is certainly a i 
heavier way of the conveyance of our sentiments ; and I 
there are very few mere readers who have the felicity ! 
of penetrating the soul, and awakening the passions of i 
those who hear, by such a grace and power of oratory, 
as the man who seems to talk every word from his 
very heart, and pours out the riches of his own knowl- 
edge upon the people round about him by the help of 
a free and copious memory. This gives life and spirit j 
to every thing that is spoken, and has a natural ten- 1 
dency to make a deeper impression on the minds of I 
men ; it aw kens the dullest spirits, causes them to re- j 
ceive a discourse with more* affection and pleasure,' 
and adds a singular grace and excellency both to the i 
person and his oration. 

A good judgment and a good memory are very dif- 
ferent qualifications. A person may have a very strong, I 
capacious and retentive memory, where the judgment 
is very poor and weak ; as sometimes it happens in 
those who are but one degree above an ideot, who I 
have manifested an amazing strength and extent of! 
memory, but have hardly been able to join or disjoin 
two or three ideas m a wise and happy manner, to 
make a soiid, rational proposition. 

Thee have been instances of others who have had 
but a very tolerable power of memory, yet thtir judg- 
ment has been of a much superior degree, just and 
wise, solid and excellent. 

Yet it must be acknowledged, that where a happy 
memory is found in any person, there is one good foun- 
dation laid for a wise and just judgment of things, 
wheresoever the natural genius has any thing of sagac- 
ity and brightness to make a right use of it. A good 
judgment must always in some measure depend upon 
a survey and comparison of several things together in 
the mind, and determining the truth of some doubtful 



OE IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 141 

j proposition by that survey and comparison. When the 
J mind has, as it were, set ail these various objects pres- 
I ent before it, which are necessary to form a true prop- 
! osition or judgment concerning any thing, it then deter- 
mines that such and such ideas are to be joined or 
disjoined, to be affirmed or denied., and this in a con- 
sistency and correspondence with all those other ideas 
and propositions which in any way relate or belong to 
the same subject. Now there can be no such compre- 
hensive survey of many things without a tolerable de- 
gree of memory ; it is by reviewing tilings past we learn 
to judge ot the future ; and it happens sometimes that 
if one needful or import .nt object or idea be absent, 
the judgment concerning the thing inquired will there- 
by become, false or mistaken. 

You will inquire then, how comes it to pass that 
there are some persons who appear in the world of v 
business, as well as in the world of learning, to have a 
good judgment, and have acquired the just character 
of prudence and wisdom, and yet have neither a very 
bright genius or sagacity of thought, nor a very happy 
memory, so that they cannot set before their minds at 
once a large scene of ideas in order to pass a judgment? 
Now we may learn from Penseroso some accounts 
of this difficulty You shall scarcely ever find this man 
forward in judging and determining things proposed 
to him, but he always takes time, and delays, and sus- 
pends, and ponders things maturely, before he passes 
his judgment; then he practises a slow meditation, 
ruminar.es on the subject, and thus perhaps in two or 
three nights and days rouses and awakens those several 
ideas, one after another as he can, which are necessary 
iii order to judge aright of the thing proposed, and 
makes them pass before his review in succession : tlm 
lie doth to relieve the want both of a quick sagacity of 
thought, and of a ready memory and speedy recollec- 
tion ; and this caution and practice lays the foundation 
of his just judgment and wise conduct. He surveys 
well before he judges. 

Whence I cannot but take occasion to infer one good 
rule of advice to persons of higher as well as lower 
genius, and of large as well as narrow memories, viz. 
That they do not too hastily pronounce concerning 
matters of doubt or inquiry, where there is not an ur- 
gent necessity of present action. The bright genius is 
N 3 



142 0E IMPROVING THE MEMORI. 

ready to be so forward as often betrays itself into great 
errours in judgment, speech, and conduct, without a 
continual guard upon itself, and using the bridle of the 
tongue. And it is by this delay and precaution, that 
many a person of much lower natural abilities shall i 1 
often excel persons of the brightest genius in wisdom | 
and prudence. ji 

It is often found that a fine genius has but a feeble 1 
memory: for where the genius is bright, and the i 
imagination vivid, the power of memory may be too f 
much neglected, and lose its improvement. An active f 
fancy readily wanders over a multitude of objects, and f 
is continually entertaining itself with new flying images; \ 
it runs through a number of new scenes or new pages 
with pleasure, but without due attention, and seldom 
suffers itself to dwell long enough upon any one of them , 
to make a deep impression thereof upon the mind, and \ 
commit it to'lasting remembrance. This is one plain 
and obvious reason why there are some persons of very 
bright parts and active spirits, who have but short and ! 
narrow powers of remembrance ; for, having riches I 
of their own, they are not solicitous to borrow. 
' And, as such a quick and various fancy and inven- \ 
tion may be some hindrance to the attention and mem- | 
ory, so a mind of a good retentive ability, and which j 
is ever crowding its memory with things which it learns J 
and reads continually, may prevent, restrain, and i 
cramp the invention itself. The memorv of Lectorides | 
is ever ready, upon all occasions, to offer to his mind | 
something out of other men's writings or conversations, ( 
and is presenting him with the thoughts of other per- ! 
sons perpetually ; thus the man who had naturally a [ 
good flowing invention, does not suffer himself to pur- 
sue his own thoughts. Some persons who have been 
blest by nature with sagacity, and no contemptible gen- 
ius, have too often forbid the exercise of it, by tying 
themsei/es down to the memory of the volumes they 
have read, and the sentiments of other men contained I 
in them. j 

Where the memory has been almost constantly em- 
ploying itself in scraping together new acquirements.and 
where there has not been a judgment sufficient to dis- 1 
tinguish what things were fit to be recommended and f 
treasured up in the memory, and what things were i 
Idle, useless, or needless, the mind has been filled with) 



I 

OE IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 143 

fa wretched heap and notch potch of words or ideas, 
land the soul may be said to have had large possessions > 
lout no true riches. 

! I have read in some of Mr. Milton's writing a very 
|j beautiful simile, whereby he represents the books of 
i; the Fathers, as they are called in the Christian church. 
Whatsoever, saith he, Old Time with his huge drag 
; net has conveyed down to us aiong the stream of ages', 
whether it be shells or shell fish, jewels or pebbles, 
sticks or straws, sea weeds or mud, these are the an- 
| cients, there are the fathers. The case is much the 
same with the memorial possessions of the greatest 
part of mankind. A few useful things perhaps, mix- 
ed and confounded with many trifles, and all manner 
of rubbish, fill up their memories and compose their 
intellectual possessions. It is a great happiness there- 
fore to distinguish things aright, and to lay up nothing 
in the memory but what has some just value in it, and 
is worthy to be numbered as a part of our treasure 

Whatsoever improvements arise to the mind of man 
from the wise exercise of his own reasoning powers, 
these may be called his proper manufactures; and 
whatsoever he borrows from abroad, these may be 
termed his foreign treasures : both together make 
a wealthy and a happy mind. 

How many excellent judgments and reasonings are 
framed in the mind of a man of wisdom and study in a 
length of years? How many worthy and admirable 
notions has he been possessed of in life, both by his own 
reasonings, and by his prudent and laborious collec- 
tions in ttie course of his reading ? But, alas ! how ma- 
ny thousands of them vanish away again and are lost 
in empty air, for want of a stronger and more reten- 
tive memory ? When a young practitioner in the law 
was once said to contest a point of debate with that 
great lawyer in the last age, Sergeant Maynard, he it; 
reported to have answered him, Alas! young man, I 
have forgot much more lav/ than ever thou hast learnt 
or read. 

What an unknown and unspeakable happiness would 
it be to a man of judgment, and who is engaged in the 
pursuit of knowledge, if he had but a power of stamp- 
ing all his own best sentiments upon his memory in 
some indelible characters ; and if he could but imprint 
every valuable paragraph, and sentiment of the mps* 



144 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 

exellent authors he has read upon his mind, -with the' 1 
same speed and facility with which he read them ? IB 
a man of good genius and sagacity could but retain and! 
survey aii those numerous, those wise and beautifulfi 
ideas at once, which have ever passed thivugh hisj) 
thoughts upon any one subject, how admirably wouldjt 
he be furnished to pass a just judgment about all pres-i- 
ent objects and occurrences? What a glorious enter-? 
tairiment and pleasure would fill and felicitate his spir-" 
it, if he could grasp all these in a single survey ; as thef 
skilful eye of a painter runs over a fine and compli- 
cate piece of history , wrought by the hand of a Titian or* ! 
a Raphael, views the whole scene at once, and feedsi : 
himself with the extensive delight ! But these are joysf 1 
that do not belong to mortality. 

Thus far I have indulged some loose and unconnected* 
thoughts and remarks with regard to the different^ 
powers of wit, memory, and judgment ; for it was veryj 
difficult to throw them into a regular form or method* 
without move room. Let us now with more regularity! 1 
treat of the memory alone. i 

Though the memory be a natural faculty of the! 
mind of man, and belongs to spirits which are not incar-J 
uate, yet it is greatly assisted or hindered, and much 
diversified by the brain or the animal nature, to which 
the soul is united in this present state. Rut what part 
of the brain that is, wherein the images of things lie 
treasured up, is very h; rd for us to determine with 
certainty. It is most probable that 'hose very fibres] 
pores, or traces of the brain, winch assist at the first 
idea or perception of any object, are the same which) 
assist also at the re collection of it ; and then t will fol- 
low that the memory has no special part of the bvaint 
devoted to its own service, but uses ah' those parts in! 
general which subserve our sensations, as well as our) 
thinking and reasoning powers. 

As the memory grows and improves in young per- 
sons from their childhood, and decays in old age, so it) 
may be increased by art and labour, and proper exer-j 
cise ; or it may be injured and quite spoiled by sloth, or 
by a disease, or a stroke on the head. There are some 1 
reasonings on this subject which make it evident, that 
the goodness of a memory depends in a great degree; 
upon the consistence and the temperature cf that 



OB IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 145 

jpart of the brain which is appointed to assist the ex- 
pertise of all our sensible and intellectual faculties. 
I So for instance, in children ; they perceive ana for- 
jget a hundred things in an hour ; the brain is so s ft 
jthat it receives immediately all impressions like water 
I or dquid mud, and retains scarcely any of them ; ail the 
'traces, forms, or images which are drawn there, are 
i immediately effaced, or closed up again, as though you 
' wrote with your finger on the surface of a river, or on 
a vessel of oil. 

On the contrary in old age, men have a very feeble 

! remembrance of things that were done of late ; i e. ' 

the same day, or week, or year ; the brain is grown so 

hard, that the present images or strokes make little or 

! no impression, and therefore they immediately vanish: 

"Prisco, in his seventy-eighth year, will tell long stories 

of things done when he wasin the battle at the Boyne, 

almost fiity years ago, and when he studied at Oxford, 

seven years before ; for those impressions were made 

when the brain was more susceptive of them ; they 

have been deeply'engraven at the proper season, and 

therefore they remain. But. words or things which he 

lately spoke or did, they are immediately forgotten, 

because tne brain is now grown more dry and solid in 

j its consistence, and receives not much more impres- 

I sion than if you wrote with your finger on a flooi of 

i clay, or a plastered wall. 

But in the middle stage of life, or it may be from fif- 
! teen to fifty years of age, the memory is generally in 
! its happiest state ; the brain easily receives and long 
I retains tne images and traces which are impressed up- 
' on it ; and the natural spirits are more active to range 
these little infinite unknown figures of things in tlieit 
i proper cells or cavities, to preserve and recollect them. 
Whatsoever therefore keeps the brain in its best 
j temper and consistence may be a help to preserve the 
j memory ; but excess of wine, or luxury of any kind, as 
\ well as excess in the studies of learning or the busines- 
| ses of life may overwhelm the memory, by overstrain- 
ing and weakening the fibres cf the brain, overwasting 
t the spirits, injuring the true consistence of that tender 
j substance, and confounding the images that are laid 
up there. 

A good memory ha* these several qualifications : (1.) 
j It is ready to rective and admit with great case the va.~ 



146 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY, 

rious ideas both of words and things which are learned : 
or taught. (2.) It is large and copious to treasure up J 1 
these ideas in great number and* variety. (3.) It is ' : 
strong and durable to retain for a considerable time (1 
those words or thoughts, which are committed to it. fl 
(4.) It is faithful and active to suggest and recollect, H 
upon every proper occasional! those words or thoughts ^ 
which have been recommended to its care, or treas- ! 
ured up in it. s 

Nov/ in every one of these qualifications, a memory f 
may be injured, or may be improved; yet I shall not P 
insist distinctly on these particulars, but only in gene- ^ 
rai propose a few mles or directions, whereby this no- \ ] 
ble faculty of memory, in all its branches and qualifi- f 
cations, may be preserve! or assisted, and show what ] 
are the practices that both by reason and experience 
have been found of happy influence to this purpose. 

There is one great and general direction which be- \ 
longs to the improvement of other powers as well as 
of the memory, and that is, to keep it always in due I 1 
and proper exercise. Many acts by degrees fnrm a | 
habit, and thereby the ability or power is strengthened ! : 
and made more ready,and appear again in action. Our 
memories should be used and inured from childhood to 
bear a moderate quantity of knowledge let into them 
early, and they will thereby become strong for use and 
service. As any limb well and duly exercised, grows 
stronger, the nerves of the body are corrcbr^ted there- 
by. Milo took up a cm If, and daily carried it on his 
shoulders; as the calf grew, his strength grew also, 
and he at last arrived at firmness of joints enough to 
bear the bull. 

Our memories will be in a great measure mended 
end formed, improved or injured, according to the ex- 
ercise of them. If we never use them, they will be al- 
most lost Those who are wont to converse or read 
about a few things only, will retain but a few in their 
memory. Those who are used to remember things 
but for an hour, and charge their memories with it no 
longer, will retain them but an hour before the* vanish. 
And let words be remembered as well as things, that 
you so may acquire a co/iia verfrorum, as well as rerum, 
and be more ready to express your mind on all occa- 
sions. 

Yet there should be a caution given in some cases ; 



Off IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 147 

the memory of a child, or any infirm person, should 
not be overburdened; for a limb or a joint maybe 
overstrained by being too much loaded, and its natural 
power never be recovered. Teachers should wisely 
judge of the power and constitution of youth and im- 
pose no move on them than they are able to bear with 
cheerfulness and improvement. 

And particularly they should take care that the 
memory of the learner be not too much crowded with 
a tumultuous heap or overbearing multitude of docu- 
ments or ideas at one time ; this is the way to remem- 
ber nothing ; one idea effaces another. An overgree- 
dy grasp does not retain the largest handful. But it is 
the exercise of memory with a due moderation, that is 
one general rule towards the improvement of it. 
The particufar rules are such as these : 
1. Due attention and diligence to learn and know 
things which we would commit to our remembrance, 
is a rule of great necessity in this case. When the at- 
tention is stroiigiy fixed to any particular subject, a]l 
that is said concerning it makes a deeper impression 
upon the mind. There are some persons who com- 
plain tliey cannot remember divine or human discours- 
es which they hear, when in truth their thoughts are 
wandering half the time, or they hear with such cold- 
ness and indifference,and a trifling temper of spirit,that 
it is no wonder the things which are read or spoken 
make but a slight impression on the brain, and get no 
firm footing in the seat of memory, but soon vanish 
and are lost. 
It is needful, therefore, if we would retain a long re- 
| membrance of the things which we read or hear, that 
we should engage our delight and pleasure in those 
I subjects, and use the other methods which are before 
I prescribed, in order to fix the attention. Sloth, indo- 
j lence, and idleness, will no more bless the mind with 
j intellectual riches, than they will fill the hand with 
j gain, the field with corn, or the purse with treasure. 

Let it be added also, that not only the slothful and 
I the negligent deprive themselves of proper knowledge 
i for the furniture of their memory, but such as appear 
to have active spirits, who are ever skimming over the 
surface of things with a volatile temper, will fix noth- 
ing in their mind. Vario will spend whole mornings 
in running over loose and Unconnected pages, and with 



148 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 

fresh curiosity is ever glancing over new words anditi 
ideas that strike his present fancy i he is fluttering!! 
over a thousand objects of arts and science, and yet|l 
treasures up but little knowledge. There must be the j I 
labour and the diligence of close attention to particular'i'i 
subjects of thought and inquiry, which only can im-jc] 
press what we read or think, upon the rememheringlcj 
faculty of man, fi 

2. Clear and distinct apprehension of the things' 
which we commit to memory is necessary, in order to/* 
mate them stick and dwell there, If we would re-!: 
member words, or learn the names of persons or thingsji 
we should have them recommended to our memory ^ 
by a clear and distinct-pronunciation, spelling, or writ-f 
ing. If we would treasure up the ideas « f things, mm 
tions, propositions, arguments, and sciences, theset 
should be recommended also to our memory, by a clears 
and distinct perception of them. Faint, glimmerings 
and confused ideas will vanish like images seen in iwi-p 
light. Every thing Avhich we learn should be convey-, 
ed to the understanding in the plainest expressions^ 
without any ambiguity, that we may not mistake wha^ 
we desire to remember. This is a general rule, wheth-ifl 
er we would employ the memory about words oij] 
things, though it must be confessed, that mere sounds)] 
and words are much harder to get by heart than thejs 
knowledge of things and real images. r 

For this reason, take heed, (as I have often before^ 
warned) that you do not take up with words instead); 
of things, nor mere sounds instead of real sentiments; 
and ideas. Many a lad forgets what has been taught: 
him, merely because he never well understood it ; hej; 
never clearly and distinctly took in the meaning 8i: 
those sounds and syllables which he was required t( 
get by heart, 

This is one true reason why boys make so poor Ejl 
proficiency in learning the Latin t ngue, under mas-u 
ters w r ho teach them by grammars and rules written' 
in Latin, of which I have spoken before And this is 
a common case with children, when they learn then' 
catechisms in their early days The language and the 1 *' 
sentiments conveyed in those catechisms are far abovci* 
the understanding of youth of that age. and they have 1 
no tolerable ideas under the words. This makes th^ 
ahswers much harder to be remembered, and in turtle 



OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 149 

! they learn nothing but words without ideas; and if 
'they are ever so perfect in repeating the words, yet 
i they know nothing of divinity. 

And for this reason it is a necessary rule in teach- 
I ing children the principles of religion, ihat they should 
I be expressed in very plain, easy, and familiar words, 
! brougnt as low as possible down to their understand- 
i ings, according to their different ages and capacities ; 
! and thereby they will obtain some useful knowledge 
when the words are treasured up in their memory, be- 
cause at the same time they will •treasure up those 
! divine ideas too. 

3. Method and regularity in the things we commit 
to memory, is necessary in order to make them take 
more effectual possession of the mind, and abide there 
long. As much as systematical learning is descried by 
some vain and humorous triflers of the age, it is cer- 
tainly the happiest way to furnish the mind with a va- 
riety of knowledge. 

Whatsoever you would trust to your memory, let it 
be disposed in a proper method, connected well to- 
gether, and referred to distinct and particular heads 
or classes, both general and particular. An apothe- 
cary's boy will much sooner learn all the medicines in 
his master's shop, when they are ranged in boxes or on 
shelves according to their distinct natures, whether 
herbs, drugs, or minerals, whether leaves or roots, 
whether chemical or Galenical preparations, whether 
simple or compound, 8cc. and when they are placed in 
some order according to their nature, their fluidity, or 
their consistence, &c. in phials, bottles, gallipots, cas- 
es, drawers, 8cc. So the genealogy of a family is more 
easily learnt when you begin at some great grandfather 
as the root, and distinguish the stock, the large boughs, 
the lesser branches,the twigs,and the buds,till you come 
down to the present infants of the house. And indeed 
all sorts of arts and sciences, taught in a method some- 
thing of this kind, are more happily committed to the 
mind or memory. 

I might give another plain simile to confirm the 
truth of this. What horse or carnage can take up and 
be.ar away all the various, rude, and unwieldy loppings 
of a branchy tree at cpice ? But if they are divided yet 
further, so as to be laid close, and bound up in a more 
uniform manner into several fcggots, perkaps those 
O 



150 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY, 

loppings may be all carried at one single load or bui^ 
den. 

The mutual dependence of things on eachother helps) 1 ; 
the memory of both. A wise connexion of the parts of y 
a discourse in a rational method gives great advan-v 
tage to the reader or hearer in order to his remem-[ 
brance of it. Therefore many mathematical demons 
strations in a long train, may be remembered muc 
better than a heap of sentences which have no connex 
Ion. The book of Proverbs, at least from the tenth' 
chapter and onwards, is much harder to remember 
than the book of Psalms, for this reason ; and som 
Christians have told me that they remember what isf 
written in the Epistle to the Romans, and that to th< 
Hebrews, much better than many others of the sacred 
epistles because there is more exact method and con 
nexion observed in them. 

He that would learn to remember a sermon which hej } 
hears, should acquaint himself by degrees with the| 
method in which the several important parts of it are'' 
delivered. It is a certain fault in a multitude of preach-i' 
ers, that they utterly neglect method in their ha4 
rangues ; or at least they refuse to render their meth-? 
od visible and sensible to the hearers. One would bef 
tempted to think it was for fear lest their auditors shouldf 
remember too much of their sermons, and prevent! 
their preaching them three or four times over ; but I<| 
have candour enough to persuade myself, that the truej 
reason is, they imagine it to be a more modish way off 
preaching without particulars : I am sure it is a much* 
more useless one. And it would be of great advantage 
both to the speaker and hearer, to have discourses for' 
the pulpit cast into a plain and easy method, and the! 
reasons or inferences ranged in a proper order, and 
that under the wordsyjirst, secondly, and thirdly, how-' 
ever they may be now fancied to sound unpolite or un-j 
fashionable ; but Archbishop Tillotson did not think so ; 
in his days. 

4. A frequent review and careful repetition of the; 
things we would learn, and an abridgment of them' 
in a narrow compass for this end, has a great influence 
to fix them in the memory ; therefore it is that thel 
rules of grammar, and useful examples of the variation 
of words, and the peculiar forms of speech in any lan- 
guage, are so often appointed by the masters as lessons 



OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 151 

for the scholars to be frequently repeated ; and they 
are contracted into tables for frequent review., that 
what is not fixed in the mind at first, may be stamped 
upon the memory by a perpetual survey anclrehearsaL 

Repetition is so very useful a practice, that Mnemon, 
even from his youth to his old age, never read a book 
-without making some small points, dashes, or hooks, in 
the margin, to mark what parts of the discourse were 
proper for a review : and when he came to the end of 
a section or chapter, he always shut his book, and 
recollected all the sentiments or expressions he had 
remarked, so that he could give a tolerable analysis 
and abstract of every treatise he had read, just after 
he had finished it. Thence he became so well furnish- 
ed with a rich variety of knowledge. 

Even when a person is hearing a sermon or a lec- 
ture, he may give his thoughts leave now and then to 
step back so far as to recollect the several heads of it 
from the beginning, two or three times before the lec- 
ture or sermon is finished ; the omission or the loss of a 
sentence or two among the amplifications is richly 
compensated by preserving in the mind the method 
and order of the whole discourse in the most import- 
ant branches of it. 

If we would fix in the memory the discourses we 
hear, or what we design to speak, let us abstract them 
into brief compends, and review them often. Lawyers 
and divines have need of such assistances : they write 
down short notes or hints of the principal heads of 
what they desire to commit to their memory, in order 
to preach or plead ; for such abstracts and epitomes 
may be reviewed much sooner, and the several am- 
plifying sentiments or sentences will be more easily 
invented or recollected in their proper places. The 
art of short hand is of excellent use for this as well as 
for other purposes. It must be acknowledged, that 
those who scarcely ever take a pen in their hand to 
write short notes or hints of what they are to speak or 
learn, who never try to cast things into method, or to 
contract the survey of them in order to commit them 
to their memory, had need have a double degree of 
that natural power of retaining and recollecting what 
they read or hear, or intend to speak. 

Do not plunge yourself into other businesses or stu- 
dies, amusements or recreations, immediately after you 



152 OF laiPROVIWG THE JIEMORY. 



have attended upon instruction, if you can well avoid it.', 
Get time if possible, to recollect the things you have 
heard, that they may not be washed all away from the' 
mind by a torrent of other occurrences or engagements,) 
nor lost in the crowd or clamour of other loud pr im-, 
portunate affairs. 

Talking over the things which you have read with': 
your companions, on the first proper opportunity you! 
have for it, is a most useful manner of review or repe- 
tition, in order to fix them upon the mind. Teach j 
them your younger friend s,in order to establish your own , 
knowledge, while you communicate it to them. The 
animal powers of your tongue and of your ear, as well I 
as» your intellectual faculties, will all join together to 
help the memory, Hermetas studied hard in a remote 
corner of the land, and in solitude, yet he became a ve- 
ry learned man. He seldom was so happy as to enjoy | 
suitable socr ty at home, and therefore he talked over | 
to the fields and the woods in the evening, what he had | 
been reading in the day, and found so considerable ad- \ 
vantage by this practice, that he recommended it to all j 
his friends, since he could set his firobatum to it for ! 
seventeen years. 

5. Pleasure and delight in the things we learn, give J 
great assistance towards the remembrance of them.j 
Whatsoever therefore we desire that a child should | 
commit to his memory, make it as pleasant to him as j 
possible ; endeavour to search his genius and his tern- i 
per ; and let him take in the instructions you give him, | 
or the lessons vou appoint him, as far as may be, in a way i 
suited to his natural inclination. Fabellus would never 
learn any moral lessons till they were moulded into the i 
form of some fiction or fable like those of iEsop, or till j 
they put on the appearance of a parable, like those 
wherein our blessed Saviour taught the ignorant world. 
Then he remembered well the emblematical instruc- I 
tion? that were given him, and learnt to practise the ; 
m. ral sense and meaning of them. Young Spectorious ! 
was taught virtue by setting before him a variety of | 
examples of the various good qualities in human life; ! 
and he was appointed daily to repeat some story of this 
kind out of Valerius Maximus. The same lad was ! 
earlv instructed to avoid the common vices and follies \ 
of youth in the same manner. This is akin to the meth- 
od whereby the Lacedaemonians trained up their chil- i 



J! OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 153 

!| dren to hate drunkenness and intemperance, viz. by 
J bringing a drunken man into their comp-tny, and show- 
I; ing them what a beast he hadjnade of himself. Such 
I visible and sensible forms of instruction will make long 
| and useful impressions upon the memory. 
i Children may be taught to remember many things 
, in a way of sport and play. Some young children have 
learnt their letters and syllables, and the pronouncing 
and spelling of words, by having them pasted or writ- 
ten upon many little fiat tablets or dies. Some have 
been taught vocabularies of different languages, having 
a word in one tongue written on one side of these tab- 
lets, and the same word in another tongue op the other 
side of them. 

There might be also many entertaining contrivances 
for the instruction of children in several things relating 
to geometry, geography, and astronomy, in such allur- 
ing and illusory methods, which would make a most 
agreeable and lasting impression on their minds. 

6. The memory of useful things may receive consid- 
erable aid if they are thrown into verse ; for the num- 
bers, and measures, and rhyme, according to the poesy 
of different languages, have a considerable influence 
upon mankind, both to make them receive with more 
ease the things proposed to their observation, and pre- 
serve them longer in their remembrance. How many 
are there of the common affairs of human life which 
have been taught in early years by the help of rhyme, 
and have been like nails fastened in a sure place," and 
riveted by daily use ! 

So the number of the days of each month is engrav- 
en on the memory of thousands by these four lines : 

Thirty days hath September, 
April, June, and November; 
February twenty-eight alone, 
All the rest have thirty-one. 

So lads have been taught frugality by surveying and 
judging of their own expenses by these three lines : 

Compute the pence but of one clay's expense, 
So many pounds, and angels, groats, and pence., 
Are spent in one whole year's circumference. 

For the number of days in a year is three hundred 
and sixty-five, which number of pence makqp one 
pound, one angel, one groat, and one penny. 
N % 



154 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 

So have rules of heaUh been prescribed in the book fl 
called Schola Salernit;ani, and many a person has pre- 
served him self doubtless from evening glu'tony, and the |) 
pains and diseases consequent upon it, by these two lines. 

Ex magna cccna stomacho Jit maxima poena : 
Ut sis node levin, sit tibi ccena brevis. > 

ENGLISHED t 

To bs easy all night. 
Let your supper be light, 
Or else you li complain 
Of a stomach in pain. 

And a hundred proverbial sentences in various lan- 
guages are formed into rhyme o; a verse, whereby they 
are made to stick upon the memorv of old and young. 

It is from this principle that moral rules have been 
cast into a poetic mould from all antiquity. So the 
golden verses of the Pythagoreans in Greek; Cato's 
distitchs De Moribus in Latin ; Lilly's precepts to 
scholars culled Qui mihi y with many others, and this 
has been done with very good success. A line or two 
of this kind recurring on the memory, have often guard- 
ed youth from a temptation to vice and folly, as well 
as put them in mind of their present duty. 

It is for this reason also that the genders, declensions, 
and variations of nouns and verbs have been taught in 
verse, by those who have complied with the prejudice 
of long custom, to teach English children the Latin 
tongue by rules written in Latin ; and, truly, those rude 
heaps of words and terminations of an unknown tongue 
■would have never been so happily learned by'heart, by 
a hundred thousand boys, without this smoothing arti- 
fice ; nor indeed do I know any thing else can be said 
with good reason, to excuse or relieve the obvious ab- 
surdities of this practice. 

When you would remember new things or words, en- 
deavour to associate and connect them with some 
•words or things which you have well known before, 
and which are fixed and established in your memory. 
This association of ideas is of great importance and 
force, and may be of excellent use in many instances of 
human life. One idea which is familiar to the mind, 
connected with others which are new and strange, will 
bring those new ideas into easy remembrance. Maron- 
fctes had got the first hundred lines of Virgil's i£nei s 



OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 155 

; printed upon his memory so perfectly, that he knew 
|! not only the order and number of every word, but in 
] each verse also ; would undertake to remember two or 
' three hundred names of persons or things, by some ra- 
tional or fantastic connexion between some word in the 
; verse,andsomeletter,syllable,property,oraccident,oi'the 
[I name or thing to be remembered, even though they had 
I been repeated but once or twice at most in his hearing. 
1 Animate practised much the same art of memory, by 
getting the Latin names of twenty-two animals into his 
I head according to the alphabet, viz. asinus, basUiscus, 
| canis, draco, elefthas, felis, gryfihus, hircus> juvenis. 
j /eo, rnulus, noctua, ovis % fianihera, quadrufies, rhino- 
ceros , simia, taurus, ursus, xifihias, hyaena or ycena? 
zibet (a. Most of these he divided also into four parts, 
viz. head and body, feet, fins or wings, and tai , and by 
some arbitrary or chimerical attachments of each of 
these to a word, or thing which he desired to remember, 
he committed them to the care of his memory, and 
that with good success. 

It is also by this association of ideas that we may bet- 
ter imprint any new Idea upon the memory, by joining 
with it some circumstance of the time, place, compa- 
ny, See. wherein we first observed, heard, or learned it. 
If we would recover an absent idea, it is useful to recol- 
lect those circumstances of time, place, &c. The sub- 
stance will many times be recovered and brought to 
the thoughts by recollecting the shadow; a man recurs 
to our fancy by remembering his garment, his size, or 
stature, his office, or employment, &c. A beast, bird, 
or fish, by its colour, figure, or motion, by the cage, 
court yard, or cistern wherein it was kept. 

To this head also we may refer that remembrance 
of names and tilings which may be derived from our 
recollection of their likeness to other things which we 
know ; either their resemblance in name, character, 
form, accident, or any thing that belongs to them. An 
idea or word which has been lost or forgotten, has 
often been recovered by hitting upon some other kin- 
dred word or idea, which has the nearest resemblance 
to it, and that in the letters, syllables, or sound of the 
name, as well as the properties of the thing. 



lot) OS 1 IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 

If we would remember Hippocrates, or Galen, or 
Paracelsus, think of a physician's name, beginning with) 
H, G, or P. If we will remember Ovidius Naso, we 
may represent a man with a large nose; if Plato, w« 
may think upon a person with large shoulders; i: 
Crispus, we shall fancy another with curled hair ; anc 
so of other things. 

And sometimes a new or strange idea may be fixed 
in the memory, by considering its contrary or opposite,. 
So if we cannot hit on the word Goliath , the remem- 
brance of David may recover it ; or the name of a[ 
Trojan may be recovered by thinking of a Greek, &ci 

7. In such cases, wherein it may be done, seek aftei^ 
a local memory, or a remembrance of what you have 
read by the side or page of where it is written or printi 
ed ; whether the right or left, whether at the top, th< 
middle, or the bottom ; whether at the beginning of ; 
chapter or paragraph, or the end of it. It has beerj 
some advantage, for this reason, to accustom one's sell 
to books of the same edition ; and it has been a constant; 
and special use to divines and private Christians, to 
furnished with several Bibles of the same edition, that 
wheresoever they are, whether in their chamber, par-, 
lour, or study, in the younger or elder years of life, theyj 
may find the chapters and verses standing in the sam 
parts of the page. 

This is also a great conveniency to be observed byf 
printers in the new editions of Grammars, Psalms, Tes-| 
laments, &c. to print every chapter, paragraph, or 
verse, in the same part of the page as the former, that 
so it may yield an happy assistance to those young^ 
learners, who find, and even fee), the advantage of a 
local memory, j 

8, Let every thing we desire to remember be fairlyi 
and distinctly written and divided into periods, withj 
large characters in the beginning, for by this means we 
shall the more readily imprint the matter and words) 
on our minds, and recollect them with a glance, the 1 
more remarkable the writing appears to the eye] 
This sense conveys the ideas to the fancy better thaif 
anv other ; and what we have seen is not so soon for-i 
gotten as what we have only heard. What Horace^ 
affirms of the mind or passions may be said also of the 
snemory, ■ 



OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY 157 

Segnius irritant aninios demissa per aurem 
Qiiam guce aunt oculis subjecta Jidelibus, et quce 
Ipse sibi tradit spectator. 

APPLIED THUS IN ENGLISH! 

Sounds which address the ear are lost and die 
In one short hour; but that which strikes the eye 
Lives long upon the mind ; the faithful sight 
Engraves the knowledge with a beam of light. 

For the assistance of weak memories, the first let- 
ters or words of every period, in every page, may be 
written in distinct colours ; yellow, green, red, black, 
&c. and if you observe the same order of colours in the 
following sentences, it will be still the better. This 
will make a greater impression, and may much aid the 
memory. 

Under this head we may take notice of the advan- 
tage which the memory gains, by having the several 
objects of our learning drawn out into schemes and ta- 
bles; matters of mathematical science and natural 
philosophy are not only let into the understanding, but 
preserved in the memory by figures a;:d diagrams. 
The situation of the several parts of the earth is bet- 
ter learned by one day's conversing with a map or sea 
chart, than by merely reading the description of their 
situation a hundred times over in books of geography. 
So the constellations in astronomy, and their position 
in the heavens, are more easily remembered by hem- 
ispheres of the stars well drawn. It is by having such 
sort of memorials, figures, and tables hung round our 
studies, or places of residence or resort, that our mem- 
ory ol these things will be greatly assisted and improv- 
ed, as I have shown at large in the twentieth chapter 
of the use of Sciences. 

I might add here also, that once writing over what 
we design to remember, and giving due attention to 
what we write, will fix it more in the mind than read- 
ing it five times. And in the same manner, if we had 
a plan of the naked lines ol longitude and latitude, pro- 
jected on the meridian printed for this use, a learner 
might much more speedily advance himself in the knowl- 
edge of geography by his own drawing the figures of 
all the parts of the world upon it by imitation, than by 
many days survey of a map of the world so printed. 
The same also may be said concerning the constella- 
tions of heaven, drawn by the learner en a nnked pro- 



158 OE IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 

jection of the circles of the sphere upon the plane of 
the equator. 

9, It has sometimes been the practice of men to im- 
print names or sentences on their memory, by taking 
the first letters of every word of that sentence, or of , 
those names, an 1 making a new word out of them. j[ 
So the name of the .iaccabees is borrowed from the ' 
first letters of the Hebrew words, which make that : 
sentence, Mi Camoka Bealim Jehovah, i. e. who is 
like thee among the gods } Which was written on I 
their banners. Jesus Christ our Saviour, hath been i 
called a fish, in Greek IX0T2, bv the fathers, because j 
these are the first letters of those Greek words, Jesus 
Christ, God's Son, the Saviour. So the word Vibgyor 
teaches us to remember the order of the seven origi- 
nal colours, as they appear by the sun beams cast j 
through a prism on white paper, o- formed by the sun 
in a rainbow, according to the different refrangibiiity 
of the rays, viz. violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, or- 
ange, and red. 

In this manner the Hebrew grammarians teach their 
students to remember the letters which change their 
natural pronunciation by the inscription of a dagesh* 
by gathering these six letters, beth, gimel, daleth, caph, 
pe, and thau, into the word Begaachefuit ; and that 
they might not forget the letters named Quiescent, viz. 
a, h, v, and i, they are joined in the word aJievi. So 
the universal and particular propositions in logic, are 
remembered by the words bar bar a, celarent, Dariifac. 

Other artificial helps to memory may be just men- 
tioned here. 

Dr. Grey, in his book called Memoria Technics, has 
exchanged the figures 1, 2, 3. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. for some 
consonants, b, d, t, f, 1, y, p, k. n, and some voweis, a, 
e, i, o, u, and several diphthongs, and thereby formed 
words that denote numbers, which may be more easi- 
ly remembered ; and Mr. Lowe has improved his 
scheme, in a small pamphlet called Mnemonics delin- 
eated, whereby in seven leaves, he has comprised al- 
most an infinity of things in science and in com men 
life, and reduced them to a sort of measure like Latin 
verse ; though the words may be supposed to be very 
barbarous, being such a mixture of vowels and conso» 
nants as are very unfit for harmony. 

Bnt after all, the very writers on this subject have 



©I? DETERMINING A QUESTION. 159 

j confessed, that several of these artificial helps of mem- 
I ory are so cumbersome as not to be suitable to every 
| temper or person ; nor are they of any use for the de- 
livery of a discourse by memory, nor of much service 
in learning the sciences : but they may be sometimes 
practised for the assisting our remembrance of certain 
sentences, numbers and names. 



CHAP. XVIII. 

Of Determining a Question. 

I. WHEN a subject is proposed to your thoughts, 
consider whether it be know »ble at all, or not ; and 
then whether it be not above the reach of your enquiry 
and knowledge in the present state ; and remember, 
that it is a great waste of time to busy yourselves too 
much amongst unsearchables ; the chief use of these 
studies is to keep the mind humble, by finding its own 
ignorance and weakness. 

II. Consider again whether the matter be worthy of 
your inquiry at all ; and then, how far it may be wor- 
thy of your present search and labour according to 
your age, your time of life, your station in the world, 
your capacity, your profession, your chief design and 
end. There are many things worth enquiry tn one 
man, which are not so to another ; and there are 
things that may deserve the study of the same person 
in one part of life, which would be improper or imper- 
tinent at another To read books of the art of preach- 
ing, or disputes about church discipline, are proper for 
a theological student in the end of his academical 
studies, but not at the beginning of them. To pursue 
mathematical studies very largely, may be useful for 
a professor of philosophy, but not for a divine. 

III. Consider whether the subject of your inquiry 
be easy or difficult ; whether you have sufficient foun- 
dation or skill, furniture and advantages, for the pur- 
suit of it. It would be madness for a young statuary to 
attempt at first to carve a Venus or a Mercury, and 
esppciaily without proper tools. And it is equal folly 
for a man to pretend to make great improvements in 
natural philosophy without due experiments. 

IV. Consider whether the subject be any ways use- 



160 01 DETERMINING A aUESTION. 

f ul or not, before you engage in the study of it ; often ! 
put this question to yourselves, Cut bono ? To what I 
purpose? What end will it attain * Is it for the glory | 
of God, for the good of men, for your own advantage, | 
for the removal of any natural or moral evil, for the j 
attainment of any natural or moral good ? Will the I 
profit be equal to the labour ? There are many subtle im- 
pertinencies learned in the schools.many painful trifles, , 
even among the mathematical theorems and problems, 
many difficiles nuj?<e, or laborious follies of various } 
kinds, which some ingenious men have been engaged in. 
A due reflection upon these things will call the mind 
away from vain amusements, and save much time. 

V. Consider what tendency it has to make you wiser 
and better, as well as to make you more learned ; and 
those questions which tend to wisdom and prudence in 
our conduct among men, as well as piety toward God, 
are doubtless more important, and preferable beyond 
all those enquiries which only improve our knowledge j 
in mere speculations, 

VI. If the question appear to be well worth your j 
diligent application, and you are furnished with the I 
necessary requisites to pursue it, then consider whether j 
it be dressed up and entangled in more words than is j 
needful, and contain or include more complicated ideas i 
than is necessary ; and if so, endeavour to reduce it to 
a greater simplicity and plainness, which will make ; 
the inquiry and argument easier and plainer all the way. 

VII. If it be stated in an improper, obscure, or irreg- I 
ular form, it may be meliorated by changing the phrase, j 
or transposing the parts of it ; but be careful always to 
keep the grand and important point of inquiry the same 
in your new stating the question. Little tricks and de- i 
ceits of sophistry, by sliding in, or leaving out such 
words as entirely change the question, should be aban- ! 
doned and renounced by all fair disputants and honest i 
searchers after truth. , 

The stating a question with clearness and justice 
goes a great way many times towards the answering it. j 
The greatest part of true knowledge lies in a distinct ] 
perception of things which are in themselves distinct ; 
and some men give more light and knowledge by the j 
bare stating of the question with perspicuity and just- 
ice, than others by talking of it in gross confusion for 
whole hours together. To' state a question is but to 



OH DETERMINING A QUESTION. 161 

separate and disentangle the parts of it from one anoth- 
er, as well as from every thing which does not concern 
the question, and then lay the disentangled parts of 
the question in due order and method; oftentimes 
without more ado this fully resolves the doubt, and 
shews the mind where the truth lies, without argu- 
ment or dispute. 

VIII. If the question relate to an axiom, or first 
principle of truth, remember that a long train of 
consequences may depend upon it ; therefore it should 
not be suddenly admitted or received. 

It is not enough to determine the truth of a propo- 
sition, much less to raise it to the honour of an axiom, 
or first principle, to say, that it has been believed 
through many ages, that it has been received by ma- 
ny nations, that it is almost universally acknowledged, 
or nobody denies it, that it is established by human 
laws, or that temporal penalties or reproaches will at- 
tend the disbelief of it. 

IX. Nor is it enough to forbid any proposition the 
title of an axiom, because it has been denied by some 
persons, and doubted by others ; for some persons have 
been unreasonably credulous, and others have been as 
unreasonably sceptical. Then only should a proposi- 
tion be called an axiom, or a self-evident truth, when, 
by a moderate attention to the subject and predicate, 
their connexion appears in so plain a light, and so clear 
an evidence, as needs no third idea, or middle term, 
to prove them to be connected. 

A. While you are in search after truth in questions 
of a doubtful nature, or such as you have not yet thor- 
oughly examined, keep up a just indifference to either 
side of the question, if you would be led honestly into 
the truth : for a desire or inclination leaning to either 
side biasses the judgment strangely: whereas by this 
indifference for every thing but truth, you will be ex- 
cited to examine fairly instead of presuming, and your 
assent will be secured from going beyond your evidence. 

XI. For the most part people are born to their opin- 
ions, and never question the truth of what their family, 
or their country, or their party profess. They clothe 
their minds as they do their bodies, after the fashion in 
vogue, nor one of a hundred ever examined their prin- 
ciples. It is suspected of lukewarrnness to suppose ex- 
amination necessarv : and it will be charged as a tesi- 
P 



162 OE DETERMINING A aUESTIOIf. 

dency to apostasy if we go about to examine them. 
Persons are applauded for presuming they are in the 
right, and (as Mr. Locke saith) he that considers and 
inquires into the reason of things is counted a foe to or- 
thodoxy, because possibly he may deviate from some 
of the received doctrines. And thus men, without any 
industry ov acquisition of their own (lazy and idle as 
they are) " inherit local truths, i. e. the truths of that 
place where they live, and are inured to assent without 
evidence. 

This hath a long and unhappy influence ; for if a man 
can bring his mind once to be positive and fierce for 
propositions whose evidence he hath never examined, 
and that in matters of the greatest concernment, he will 
naturally fellow this short and easy way of judging and 
believing in cases of less moment, and build all his opin- 
ions upon insufficient grounds. 

XII. In determining a question, especially when it is 
a matter of difficulty and importance, do not take up 
with partial examination, but turn your thoughts on all 
sides, to gather in all the light you can toward the solu- 
tion of it Take time, and use all all the helps that are 
to be attained, before you fully determine, except only 
where present necessity of action calls for speedy de- 
termination. 

If you would know what may be called a partial ex- 
amination, take these instances, viz. 

When you examine an object of sense, or inquire in- 
to some matter of sensation at too great a distance from 
the object, or in an inconvenient situation of it, or under 
any indisposition of the organs, or any disguise whatso- 
ever relating to the medium or the organ of the object 
itself; or when you examine it by one sense only,where 
others might be employed ; or when you enquire into 
it by sense only, without the use of the understanding, 
and judgment, and reason. 

If it be a question which is to be determined by rea- 
son and argument, then your examination is partial 
when you turn the question only in one light, and do not 
turn it on all sides ; when you look upon it only in its 
relations and aspects to one sort of object, and not to 
another ; when vou consider only the advantages of it, 
and the reasons for it, and neglect to think of the rea- 
sons against it, and never survey its inconveniencies too ; 
when you determine on a sudden, before you have giv- 



S DETERMINING A aXTESTIOST. 163 

en yourself a due time for weighing all circumstan- 
ces, &c. 

Again, If it be a question of fact, depending upon the 
report or testimony of men, your examination is but 
partial, when you inquire only what one man or a few 
say, and avoid the testimony of others ; when you only 
ask what those report who were not eye or ear witnes- 
ses, and neglect those who saw and heard it ; when 
you content yourself with mere loose and general talk 
about it, and never enter into particulars ; or when 
there are manv who deny the fact, and you never con- 
cern yourself about their reasons for denying it, but re- 
solve to believe only those who affirm it. 

There is yet a further fault in your partial examina- 
tion of any question, when you resolve to determine it 
by natural reason only, where you might be assisted 
by supernatural revelation ; or when you decide the 
point by some word or sentence, or by some part of 
revelation, without comparing it with other parts, which 
might give further light and better help to determine 
the meaning. 

It is also a culpable partiality, if you examine some 
doubtful or pretended vision or revelation without the 
use of reason ; or without the use of that revelation, 
which is undoubted and sufficiently proved to be divine. 
These are all instances of imperfect examination : and 
we should never determine a question by one or two 
lights, where we may have the advantage of three or 
four. 

XIII. Take heed lest some darling notion, some fa- 
vourite hyp thesis.some beloved doctrine, or some com- 
mon but unexamined opinion, be made a test of the truth 
or falsehood of all other propositions about the same 
subject. Dare not build much upon such a notion or doc- 
trine till it be very fully examined, accurately adjusted, 
and sufficiently confirmed. Some persons, by indulg- 
ing such a practice, have been led into long ranks of 
errors ; they have found themselves involved in a train 
of mistakes, by taking up some petty hypothesis or 
principle, either in philosophy, politics, or religion, 
upon slight and insufficient grounds, and establishing 
that as a test and rule by which to judge of all other 
things. 

XI V. For the same reason, have a care of suddenly 
determining any one question on which the determiria- 



164 OF DETERMINING A ttUESTION. 

tion of any kindred or parallel cases will easily or nat- 
urally follow. Take heed of receiving any wrong turn 
in your early judgment of things; be watchful as far 
as possible, a gainst any false bias which may be given 
to the understanding, especially in young r years. The 
indulgence of some one silly opinion, or the giving cred- 
it to one foolish fable, lays the mind open to be imposed 
upon by many. The ancient Romans were taught to 
believe that Romulus and Remus, the founders of their 
state and empire, were exposed in the woods, and 
nursed by a wolf: This story piepared th< ir minds 
for the reception of any tales of tht like nature relating to 
other countries. Trogus Pornpeius would enforce the 
belief, that one of the ancient kings of Spain was also 
nursed and suckled by a hart, from the fable of Romu- 
lus and Remus It was by the same influence they 
learned to give up their hopes and fears to omens and 
soothsay ing, when they were once persuaded that the 
greatness of their empire, and the glory of Romulus 
their founder, were predicted by tht happy omen of 
twelve vultures appearing to him when he sought 
where to build the city. They readily received all the 
following legends, of prodigies, auguries, ^nd prognos- 
tics, for many ages together, with which Livy has fur- 
nished his huge history. 

So the child who is once taught to believe any one 
occurrence to be a good or evil omen, or any day of the 
month or week to be lucky or unlucky, hath a wide in- 
road made on the soundness of his understanding in the 
follow ing judgments of his life ; he lies ever open to all 
the silly impressions', and idle tales of nurses, and im- 
bibes many a foolish story with greediness, which he 
must unlearn ag. in, if ever he become acquainted 
with truth and wisdom. 

XV. Have a care of interesting your warm and re- 
ligious z al in those matters which are not sufficiently 
evident in themselves, or which are not fully and thor- 
oughly examined and proved; for this zeal, whether 
right or wrong, when it is once engaged, will have a 
powerful influence to establish your own minds in those 
doctrines which are really doubtful, r+nd to stop up all 
the avenues of further light. This will bring upon the 
soul a sort of sacred awe and dread of heresy, with a 
divine concern. to maintain whatever opinion you have 
espoused as divine, though perhaps you have espoused 



OE DETERMINING A aUESTION. 165 

it without any just eviderice,and ought to have renoun- 
ced it as false and pernicious. 

We ought to be zealous for the most important points 
of our religion, and to contend earnestly for the faith 
once delivered to the saints ; but we ought not to em- 
ploy this sacred fervour of spirit in the service of any 
article, till we have seen it made out with plain and 
strong conviction, that it is a necessary or important point 
of faith or practice, and is either an evident dictate of 
the light of nature, or an assured article of revelation. 
Zeal must not reign over the powers of our understand- 
ing, but obey them : God is the God of light and truth, 
a God of reason and order, and he never requires man- 
kind to use their natural faculties amiss for the support 
of his cause. Even the most mysterious and sublime 
doctrines of revelation are not to be believed without a 
just reason for it ; nor should our pious affections be 
engaged in the defence of them, till we have plain and 
convincing proof that they are certainly revealed, though 
perhaps we may never in this world attain to such 
clear and distinct ideas of them as we desire. 

XVI. As a warm zeal ought never to be employed 
in the defence of any revealed truth, till our reason be 
well convinced of the revelation ; so neither should wit 
and banter, jest and ridicule, ever be indulged to oppose 
or assault any doctrines of professed revelation, till 
reason has proved they are not really revealed ; and 
even then these methods should be used very sel- 
dom, and with the utmost caution and prudence. Rail- 
lery and wit were never made to answer our inquiries 
after truth, and to determine a question of rational 
controversy ; though they may sometimes be servicea- 
ble to expose to contempt those inconsistent follies 
which have been first abundantly refuted by argument; 
they serve indeed only to cover nonsense with shame, 
when reason has first proved it to be mere nonsense. 

It is therefore a silly and most unreasonable test 
which some of our deists have introduced to judge of 
divine revelation, viz. to try if it will bear ridicule and 
laughter. They are effectually beaten in all their com- 
bats at the weapons of men, that is, reason and argu- 
ment ; and it would net be unjust (though it is a little 
uncourtly) to sav, that they would now attack our re- 
ligion with the "talents of a vile animal, that is. $rin 
and grimace. 

P 2 



166 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 

I cannot think that a jester or a monkey, a droll or 
a puppet, can be proper judges or deciders of contro- 
versy. That which dresses up all things in disguise, 
is not likely to lead us into any just sentiments about 
them. Plato or Socrates, Caesar or Alexander, might 
have a fool's coat clapped upon any of them,ancl perhaps 
in this disguise, neither the wisdom of the one, nor the 
majesty of the other, would secure them from a sneer ; 
this treatment would never inform us whether they 
were kings or slaves, whether they were fools or phi- 
losophers. The strongest reasoning, the best sense, 
and the politest thoughts, may be set in a most ridicu- 
lous light by this grinning faculty ; the most obvious 
axioms of eternal truth may be dressed in a very fool- 
ish form, and wrapt up in artful absurdities by this tal- 
ent ; but they are truth, and reason, and good sense 
still. Euclid, with all his demonstrations, might be so 
covered and overwhelmed with banter, that a beginner 
in the mathematics might be tempted to doubt whether 
his theorems were true or not, and to imagine they 
could never be useful. So weaker minds might be easily 
prejudiced against the noblest principle of truth and 
goodness ; and the younger part of mankind might be 
beat off from the belief of the most serious, the most 
rational and important points, even of natural religion, 
by the impudent jests of a profane wit. The moril du- 
ties of the civil life, as well as the articles of Christian- 
ity, may be painted over with the colours of folly, and 
exposed upon a stage, so as to ruin all social and per- 
sonal virtue among the gay and thoughtless part of the 
world. 

XVII. It should be observed also, that these very- 
men cry out loudly against the use of all severe rail- 
ing and reproach in debates, and all penalties and per- 
secutions of the state, in order to convince the minds 
and consciences of men, and determine points of truth 
and error. Now I renounce these penal and smart- 
ing methods of conviction as much as they do, and yet 
I think still these are every whit as wise, as just, and 
as good for this purpose as banter and ridicule. Why 
should public mockery in print, or a merry joke up- 
on a stage, be abetter test of truth, than severe railing 
sarcasms, and public persecutions and penalties'? 
Why should more light be derived to the understand- 
ing, by a song of scurrilous mirth, or a witty ballad, 



QF DETERMINING A Q,UESTIOPf. 167 

than there is by a rude cudgel ? When a professor of 
any religion is set up to be laughed at, 1 cannot see 
how this should help us to judge of the truth of his 
faith any better than if we were scourged. The jeers 
of a theatre, the pillory, and the whipping post, are 
very near akin. When the person or his opinion is 
made the jest of the mob, or his back the shambles of 
the executioner, I think there is no more conviction in 
the one than in the other. 

XVIII. Besides, supposing it is but barely possible, 
that the great God should reveal his miod and will to 
men by miracle, vision, or inspiration, it is apiece of 
contempt and profane insolence to treat any tolerable 
or rational appearance of such a revelation with jest 
and laughter, in order to find whether it be divine or 
not. And yet, if this be a proper test of revelation, it 
may be properly applied tri the true as well as the 
false, in order to distinguish it. Suppose a roy.al proc- 
lamation were sent to a distant part of the kingdom, 
and some of the subjects should doubt whether it came 
from the king or not : Is it possible that wit and ridi- 
cule should ever decide the point? Or would the 
prince ever think himself treated with just honour to 
have his proclamation canvassed in this manner on a 
public stage, and become the sport of buffoons, in or- 
der to determine the question, whether it is the word 
of a king or not ? 

Let such sort of writers go on at their dearest peril, 
and sport themselves in their own deceiving ; let them 
at their peril make a jest of the Bible, and treat the 
sacred articles of Christianity with scoff and merri- 
ment : But then let them lay aside all their pretences 
to reason as well as religion ; and as they expose 
themselves by such writings to the neglect and con- 
tempt of men, so let them prepare to meet the majes- 
ty and indignation of God without timely repentance. 

XIX. In reading philosophical, moral, or religious 
controversies, never raise your esteem of any opinion 
by the assurance and zeal wherewith the author as- 
serts it, nor by the highest praises he bestows upon it; 
nor, on the other hand, let your esteem of an opinion 
be abated, nor your aversion to it raised by the super- 
cilious contempt cast upon it by a warm writer, nor 
by the sovereign airs with which he condemns it. Let 
the force of argument alone influence your assent or 



168 OK DETERMINING A aUESTIOW. 

dissent. Take care that your soul be not warped ox* 
biassed on one side or the otiier, by any strains of 
flattering or abusive language ; for there is no question 
whatsoever, but hath some such sort of defenders and 
opposers. Leave those writers to their own follies, 
who practise thus upon the weakness of their readers 
without argument ; leave them to triumph in their 
own fancied possessions and victories ; it is oftentimes 
found that their possessions are but a heap of errors, 
and their boasted victories are but overbearing noise 
and clamour to silence the voice of truth. 

In philosophy and religion, the bigots of all parties 
are generally the most positive, and deal much in this 
sort of argument. Sometimes these are the weapons 
of pride, for a haughty man supposes all his opinions 
to be infallible, and imagines the contrary sentiments 
are ever ridiculous, and not worthy of notice. Some- 
times these ways of talking are the mere arms of igno- 
rance : The men who use them know little of the op- 
posite side of the question, and therefore they exult in 
their own vain pretences to knowledge, as though 
no man of sense could oppose their opinions. They 
rail at an objection against their own sentiments, be- 
cause they can find no other answer to it but railing. 
And men of learning, by their excessive vanity, have 
been sometimes tempted into the same insolent prac- 
tice, as well as the ignorant. 

Yet let it be remembered too, that there are some 
truths so plain and evident, that the opposition to them 
is strange, unaccountable, and almost monstrous ; and 
in vindication of such truths, a writer of good sense 
may sometimes be allowed to use a degree of assur- 
ance, and pronounce them strongly with an air of con- 
fidence, while he defends them with reasons of con- 
vincing force. 

XX. Sometimes a question may be proposed which 
is of so large and extensive a nature, and refers to such 
a multitude of subjects, as ought not in justice to be de- 
termined at once by a single argument or answer ; as if 
one should ask me, Are you a professed disciple of the 
Stoics or the Platonists ? Do you receive and assent to 
the principles of Gassendus, Descartes, or Sir Isaac 
Newton ? Have you chosen the hypothesis of Tycho or 
Copernicus? Have you devoted yourself to the senti- 
ments of Armimus or Calvin? Are your notions Episco- 



OF DETERMINING A aUESTIOST, 169 

pal „ Presbyterian, or Independent? &c. I think it may- 
be very proper in such cases not to give an answer in 
the gross, but rather to enter into a detail of particulars, 
and explain one's own sentiments. Perhaps there is no 
man, nor set of men upon earth, whose sentiments I 
entirely follow. God has given me reason to judge lor 
myself, and though I may see sufficient ground to agree 
to the greatest part of the opinions of one person or par- 
ty, yet it does by no means follow that I should receive 
them all. Truth does not always go by the lump, nor 
does error tincture and spoil all the articles of belief that 
some one party professes. 

Since there are difficulties attending every scheme of 
human knowledge, it is enough for me in the main to 
incline to that side which has the fewest difficulties ; 
and I would endeavour, as far as possible, to correct the 
mistakes or the harsh expressions of one party, by soft- 
ening and reconciling methods, by reducing the ex- 
tremes, and by borrowing some of the best principles or 
phrases from "another. Cicero was one of the greatest 
men of antiquity, and gives us an account of the various 
opinions of philosophers in his age ; but he himself was 
of the eclectic sect, and chose out of each of them such 
positions as in his wisest judgment came nearest to the 
truth. 

XXI. When ycu are called in the course of life or 
religion to judge and determine concerning any question, 
and to affirm or deny it, take a full survey of the objec- 
tions against it, as well as of the arguments for it, as far as 
your time and circumstances admit, and see on which 
side the preponderation falls. If either the objections 
against any proposition, or the arguments for the defence 
of it, carry in them most undoubted evidence, and are 
plainly unanswerable, they will and ought to constrain 
the assent, though there may be many seeming proba- 
bilities on the other side, which at first sight would Hat- 
ter the judgment to favour it. But where the reasons 
on both sides are very near of equal weight, there sus- 
pension or doubt is our duty, unless in cases wherein 
present determination or' practice is required, and there 
we must act according to the present appearing pre- 
ponderation of reasons. 

XXII. In matters of moment and importance, it is 
our duty indeed to seek after certain and conclusive ar- 
guments, (if they can be found) in order to determine a 



170 OF DETERMINING A aUESTIGW. 

question ; but where the matter is of little consequence, 
it is not worth our labour to spend much time m seek- 
ing after certainties ; it is sufficient here, if probable 
reasons offer themselves. And even m matters of gre at- 
er importance, especially where daily practice is neces- 
sary, and where we cannot attain any sufficient or cer- 
tain grounds to determine a question on either side, we 
must then take up with such probable arguments as we 
can arrive at. But this general rule should be observ- 
ed, viz. to take heed that our assent be no stronger, or 
rise no higher, in the degree of it, than the probable ar- 
gument will support. 

XXIII. There are many things, even in religion, as 
well as in philosophy and civil ljte, which we believe 
with very different degrees of assent ; and this is or 
should be always regulated according to the different 
degrees of evidence which we enjoy ; and perhaps there 
are a thousand gradations in our assent to the things we 
believe, because there are thousands of circumstances re- 
lating to different questions, which increase or diminish 
the evidence we have concerning them, and that in 
matters both of reason and revelation. 

I believe there is a God, and that obedience is due to 
him from every reasonable creature : this I am most 
fully assured of, because I have the strongest evidence, 
since it is the plain dictate both of reason and revelation. 

Again, I believe there is a future resurrection of the 
dead, because scripture tells us so in the plainest terms, 
though reason says nothing of it. I believe also that the 
same matter of our bodies which died (in part at least) 
shall arise ; but I am not so fully assured of this circum- 
stance, because the revelation of it is not quite so clear 
and express. Yet further I believe, that the good men 
who were acquainted here on earth shall know each 
other m heaven ; but my persuasion of it is not absolutely 
certain, because my assent to it arises only from circum- 
stantial reasonings of men upon what God has told us, 
and therefore my evidences are not strong bevond a pos- 
sibility of mistake. This direction cannot be too often 
repeated, that our assent ought always to keep pace 
with our evidence; and our belief of any proposition 
should never rise higher than the proof, or evidence we 
have to support it, nor should our faith run faster than 
right reason can encourage it. 

XXIV. Perhaps it will be objected here, why then 



OF DETERMINING A aUESTION. 171 

does cur Saviour, in the histories of the Gospel, so much 
commend a strong faith, and lay out both his miraculous 
benefits and his praises upon some of those poor crea- 
tures of little reasoning, who professed an assured belief 
of his commission and power to heal them ? 

I answer, the God of nature has given every man his 
own reason, to be the judge of evidence to himself, in 
particular, and to direct his assent in all things about 
which he is called to judge; and even the matters of 
revelation are to be believed by us, because our reason 
pronounces the revelation to be true. Therefore the 
great God will not, or cannot, in any instance, require 
us to assent to any thing without re asonable or sufficient 
evidence ; nor to believe any preposition more strongly 
than what our evidence for it will support. We have 
therefore abundant ground to believe, that those persons 
of whom our Saviour requires such strong faith, or whom 
he commends for their strong faith, had as strong and 
certain evidence of his power and commission from the 
credible and incontestable reports they had heard of his 
miracles, which were wrought on purpose to give evi- 
dence to his commission.* Now in such a case, both this 
strong faith and the open profession of it, were very 
worthy of public encouragement and praise from our 
Saviour, because of the great and public opposition which 
the magistrates and the priests, and the doctors of the 
age, made against Jesus, the man of Nazareth, when 
he appeared as the Messiah. 

And besides all this, it may be reasonably supposed, 
with regard to some of those strong exercises of faith 
which are required and commended, that these believ- 
ers had some further hints of inward evidence and im- 
mediate revelation from God himself ; as when St. Pe- 
ter confesses Christ to be the Son of God, Matt. xvi. 16, 
17. our blessed Saviour commends him, saying, " Bless- 
ed art thou, Simon Barjona:" But he adds, "Flesh and 
blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father 
who is in heaven." 

* When our Saviour gently reproves Thomas for his unbelief, (John 
xx. 29.) he does it in these words : " Because thou hast seen me, Thomas, 
thou hast believed ; blessed are they who have not seen, and yet have be- 
lieved," i. e. " Blessed are they who, though they have not been favoured 
with the evidence of their senses as thou hast been, yet have been con- 
vinced by the reasonable and sufficient moral evidence of the well ground- 
ed report of others, and have believed in me upon that evidence."' Of 
this moral evidence Mr. Ditton writes exceedingly well in his book r>f 
the Resurrection of Christ, 



172 OF DETERMINING A aUESTIOMT. 

i 

And the same may be said concerning the faith of mir- i 
acles, the exercise of which was sometimes required of I 
the disciples and others ; i. e. when by inward and di- 
vine influences God assured them such miracles should 
be wrought, their obedience to and compliance with these 
divine illuminations was expected and commended* 
Now this supernatural inspiration carried sufficient evi- 
dence with it to them, as well as to the ancient prophets, 
though we who never felt it are not so capable to judge 
and distinguish it. 

XXV. What is said before concerning truth or doc- 
trines may be also affirmed concerning duties ; the rea- 
son of both is the same ; as the one are truths for our 
speculation, the others are truths for our practice. Du- 
ties which are expressly required in die plain language 
of scripture, or dictated by the most evident reasoning 
upon first principles, ought to bind our consciences more 
than those which are but dubiously inferred, and that 
only from occasional occurrences, incidents, and circum- 
stances : as for instance, I am certain that I ought to 
pray to Gnd ; my conscience is bound to this, because 
there are most evident commands for it to be found ia 
scripture, as well as to be derived from reason. 1 be- 
lieve also that I may pray to God, either by a written 
form, or without one, because neither reason nor reve- 
lation expressly requires either of these modes of prayer 
at all times, or forbids the other. I cannot therefore 
bind my conscience to practise the one so as utterly to 
renounce the other ; but I would practise either of them 
as my reason and other circumstances direct me. 

Again, I believe that Christians ought to remember 
the death of Christ by the symbols of bread and wine ; 
and I believe there ought to be pastors in a Christian 
church some way ordained or set apart to lead the wor- 
ship, and to bless and distribute the elements; but the 
last of these practices is not so expressly directed, pre- 
scribed, and required in scripture as the former; and 
therefore I feel my conscience evidently brund to remem- 
ber the death of Christ with some society of Christians 
or other, since it is a most plain command, though their 
methods of ordaining a pastor be very different from 
other men, or from my own opinion ; or whether the 
person who distributes these elements be only an occa- 
sional or a settled administrator ; since none of these 
things are plainly determined in scripture ; I must not 



OE DETERMINING A QUESTION. 173 

omit or neglect an express command, because some un- 
necessary circumstances are dubious. And I trust I 
shall receive approbation f rom the God of nature, and 
from Jesus my Judge at the last day, if I have endeav- 
oured in this manner to believe and practice every thing 
in proportion to the degree of evidence which God has 
given me about it, or which he has put me into a capacity 
to seek and obtain in the age «nd nation wherein J live. 

Query. Whether the obstinate Deists and Fatalists of 
Great Britain, will find sufficient apology from this prin- 
ciple ? But I leave them to venture the awful experiment. 

XXVI. We may observe these three rules, in judg- 
ing of probabilities which are to determined by reason, 
relating either to things past, or things to come. 

1. That which agrees most with the constitution of 
nature carries the greatest probability in it, where no 
other circumstance appears to counterpoise it ; as, if I 
let loose a greyhound within sight of a hare upon a large 
plain, there is great probability that the greyhound 
will seize her; that a thousand sparrows will fly away 
at the sight of a hawk, among them. 

2. That which is most conformable to the constant ob- 
servations of men, or to experiments frequently repeated, 
is most likely to be true ; as, that a winter will not pass 
away in England without some frost and snow ; that if 
you deal out great quantities of strong liquor to the mob, 
there will be many drunk ; that a large assembly of men 
will be of different opinions in any doubtful point ; that 
a thief will make his escape out of prison, if the doors 
of it are unguarded at midnight, 

3. In matters of fact, which are past or present, where 
neither nature, nor observation, nor custom, gives us any* 
sufficient information on either side of the question, there 
we may derive a probability from the attestation of wise 
and honest men, by word or writing, or the concurring 
witnesses of multitudes who have seen and known what 
they relate, &c. This testimony in many cases will a- 
rise to the degree of moral certainty. So we believe that 
the plant tea grows in China ; and that the Emperor of 
the Turks lives at Constantinople; that Julius Cresar 
conquered France ; and that Jesus our Saviour lived and 
died in Judea ; that thousands were converted to the 
Christian faith in a century after the death of Christ ; 
and that the books which contain the Christian religion 
are certain histories and eoistles which weie Written 

Q 



174 OE DETERMINING A aUESTION. 

above a thousand years ago. There is an infinite vari-' 
ety of such propositions which can admit of no reasona- I 
ble doubt, though they are not matters which are directly I 
evident to our own senses, or our mere reasoning powers. 

XXVII. When a point hath been well examined, 
and our own judgment settled upon just arguments in 
our manly age, and after a large survey of the merits of 
the cause, it would be a weakness for us always to con- 
tinue fluttering in suspense. We ought therefore to 
stand firm in such well established principles, and not 
be tempted to change and alter for the sake of every 
difficulty, or every occasional objection. We are not 
to be carried about with every flying doctrine, like chil- 
dren tossed to and fro, and wavering with the wind. It 
is a good thing to have the heart established with grace, 
not with meats, that is, in the great doctrines ol the gos- 
pel of grace, and in Jesus Christ, who is the same yes- 
terday, to-day, and forever ; but it is not so necessary 
in the more minute matters of religion, such as meats and 
drinks, forms and ceremonies, which are of less impor- 
tance, and for which Scripture has ^ot given us such ex- 
press directions. This is the advice of the great Apos- 
tle, Eph. iv. 14. Heb. xiii. 8, 9. 

In short, those truths which are the springs of daily 
practice should be settled as soon as we can with the 
exercise of our best powers, after the state of manhood ; 
but those things wherein we may possibly mistake should 
never be so absolutely and finally established ^nd deter- 
mined, as though we were infallible. If the Papists of 
Great Britain had maintained such a resolute establish- 
ment and assurance in the days of King Henry VIII. 
or Queen Elizabeth, there never had been a reforma- 
tion ; nor would any Heathen have been converted even 
under the ministry of St Paul, if their obstinate settle- 
ment in their idolatries had kept their eyes shut against 
all fin ther light. Yet this should not hinder us from 
settling our most important principles of faith and prac- 
tice, where reason shines with its clearest evidence, and 
the word of God plainly determines truth and duty. 

XXVIII. But let us remember also, that though the 
gospel be an infallible revelation, we are but fallible in- 
terpreters, when we determine the sense even of some 
important propositions written there; and therefore, 
though we seem to be established in the belief of any 
particular sense of scripture, and though there may be 



«E INatJIRlNG INTO CAUSES AND EEFECTS. 175 

just calls of Providence to profess and subscribe it, yet 
there is no need that wie should resolve or promise, sub- 
scribe or swear, never to change our mind ; since it is 
possible, in the nature and course of things, we may meet 
with such a solid and substantial objection, as may give 
us a quite different view of things from what we once 
imagined, and may lay before us sufficient evidence of 
the contrary. We may happen to find a fairer light 
cast over the same scriptures, and see reason to alter our 
sentiments even in some points of moment. Sic sentio, 
sic sentiam, i. e. So I believe, and so I will believe, is the 
prison of the soul for lifetime, und a bar against ail the 
improvements of the mind. To impose such a profession 
on other men in matters not absolutely necessary, and 
not absolutely certain, is a criminal usurpation and ty- 
ranny over faith and conscience, and which none has 
power to require it but an i fallible dictator, 

CHAP. XIX. 

Of Inquiring into Causes and Effects. 

SOME effects are found out by their causes, and some 
causes by their effects. Let us consider both these. 

I. When we are inquiring into the causes of any par- 
ticular effect or appearance, either in the world of na- 
ture, or in the civil or moral concerns of men, we may 
follow this method ; 

1. Consider what effects or appearances ycu have 
known of a kindred nature, and what have been the cer-- 
tain and real causes of them ; for like effects have gen- 
erally l<ke causes, especially when they are found in the 
same sort of subjects. 

2. Consider what are the several possible causes 
which may produce such an effect ; and find out by some 
circumstances how many of those possible causes are ex- 
cluded in this particular case ; thence proceed by de- 
grees to the probable causes, till a more close atttenticn 
and inspection shall exclude some of them also, and 
lead you gradually to the real and certain cause. 

3. Consider what things preceded such an event or 
appearance, which might have any influence upon it; 
and though we cannot certainly determine the cause of 
any thing only from its going before the effect, yet amon^r 



176 OE ItfaUIRIIfG INTO 

the many forerunners, we may probably light upon the i 
true cause by further and more particular inquiry. 

4. Consider whether one cause be sufficient to produce 
the eftect, or whether it does not require a concurrence 
of several causes; and then endeavour as far as possi- 
ble to adjust the degrees of influence that each cause 
might have in producing the effect, and the proper agen- 
cy and influence of each of them therein. 

So in natural philosophy, if I would find what are the 
principles or causes of that sensation which we call heat 
when I stand near the fire ; here I shall find it is necessa- 
ry that there be an agency of the particles of fire on my 
flesh, either mediately by themselves, or at least by the 
intermediate air ; there must bt a particular sort of mo- 
tion and vellication imprest upon my nerves ; there must 
be a derivation of that motion to the brain ; and there 
must be an attention of my soul to this motion ; if either 
of these are wanting, the sensation of heat will not be 
produced. 

So in the moral world, if I inquire into the revolution 
of a state or kingdom, perhaps I find it brought about 
by the tyranny or folly of a prince^ or by the disaffection 
of his own subjects; and this disaffection and opposition 
may arise, either upon the account of impositions in re- 
ligion, or injuries relating to their civil rights ; or the 
revolution may be effected by the invasion of a foreign 
army, or by the opposition of some person at home or 
abroad, that lays claim to the government, &c. or a hero 
who would guard the liberties of the people ; or by many 
of these concurring together; then we must adjust the 
influences of each as wisely as we can, and not ascribe 
the whole event to one of them alone. 

II. When we are inquiring into the effects of any 
particular cause or causes, we may follow this method : 

1. Consider diligently the nature of every cause apart, 
and observe what effect every part, or property of it 
will tend to produce. 

2. Consider the causes united together in their seve- 
ral natures, and ways of operation ; inquire how far the 
powers or properties of one will hinder or promote the 
effects of the other, and wisely balance the proportions 
of their influence. 

3. Consider what the subject is, in or upon which the 
cause is to operate ; for the same cause on different 



CAUSES ANB EFFECTS. 177 

subjects will oftentimes produce different effects, as the 
sun which softens wax, will harden clay. 

4. Be frequent and diligent in making all proper ex- 
periments, in setting such causes at work, whose effects 
you desire to know, and putting together in an orderly 
manner such things as are most likely to produce some 
useful effects, according to the best survey you can take 
of all the concurring causes and circumstances. 

5. Observe carefully all the events which happen ei- 
ther by an occasional concurrence of various causes, or 
by the industrious applications of knowing men ; and 
when you see any happy effect certainly produced, and 
often repeated, treasure it up, together with the known 
causes of it, amongst your improvements. 

6. Take a just survey of all the circumstances which 
attend the operation ot any cause or causes, whereby 
any special effect is produced; and find out as far as pos- 
sible how far any of those circumstances had a tendency 
either to obstruct or promote, or change those opera-? 
tions, and consequently how far the effect might be in- 
fluenced by them. 

In this manner physicians practise and improve their 
skill. They consider the various known effects of par- 
ticular herbs or drugs, they meditate what will be the 
effects of their composition, and whether the virtues of 
the one will exalt or diminish the force of the other, c: 
correct any of its innocent qualities. Then they observe 
the native constitution, and the present temper or cir- 
cumstances of the patient, and what is likely to be the 
effect of such a medicine, on such a patient. And in all 
uncommon eases they make wise and cautious experi- 
ments, and nicely observe the effects of particular com- 
pound medicines on different constitutions, and in differ- 
ent diseases ; and by these treasures of just observations, 
they grow up to an honourable degree of skill in the 
art of healing. 

So the preacher considers the doctrines and reasons, 
the precepts, the promises and threatenings of the word 
of God, and what are the natural effects of them upon 
the mind ; he considers what is the natural tendency of 
such a virtue or such a vice ; he is well apprized that 
the representation of some of these things may convince 
the understanding, some may terrify the conscience, 
some may allure the slothful, and some encourage the 
desponding mind ; he observes the temper of his hear- 
Q3 



178 OF THE SCIENCES, 

ers, or of any particular person that converses with him 
about things sacred, and he judges what will be the ef- 
fects of each representation on such persons; he reviews 
and recollects what have been the effects of some spe- 
cial parts and methods of his ministry; and by a careful 
survey of all these, he attains greater degrees^ skill in 
his sacred employment. 

Note. — In all these cases we must distinguish those 
causes and effects which are naturally and necessarily 
connected with each other, from those which have only 
an accidental or contingent connexion. Even in those 
causes where the effect is but contingent, we may some- 
times arrive at a very high degree of probability; yet 
we cannot arrive at such certainty as where the causes 
operate by an evident and natural necessity, and the ef- 
fects necessarily follow the operation. 

See more on this subject, Logic, Part II. Chap. Y. 
Sect. 7. 



CHAP. XX. 

Of the Sciences, and their Use in particular Pro- 
fession*. 

I. THE best way to learn any science, is to begin 
with a regular system, or a short and plain scheme of 
that science, well drawn up into a narrow compass, o- 
mitting the deeper and more abstruse parts of it, and 
tnat also under the conduct and instruction of some skil- 
ful teacher. Systems are necessary to give an entire 
and comprehensive view of the several parts of any sci- 
ence, which may have a mutual influence towards the 
explication or proof of each other; whereas, if a man 
deals always and only in essays and discourses on par- 
ticular parts of a science, he will never obtain a distinct 
and just idea of the whole, and may perhaps omit some 
important part of it, after seven years reading of such 
occasional discourses. 

For this reason, young students should apply them- 
selves to their systems much more than pamphlets. 
That man is never so fit to judge of particular sub- 
jects relating to any science, who has never taken a sur- 
rey of the whole. 

It is the remark of an ingenious writer, should a bar- 



AND THEIR USE. V%& 

barons Indian, who had never seen a palace or a ship, 
view their separate and disjointed parts, and observe 
the pillars, doors, windows, cornices, and turrets of the 
one, or the prow and stern, the ribs and masts, the 
ropes and shrouds, the sails and tackle of the other, he 
would be able to form but a very lame and dark idea 
of either of tli ose excellent and useful inventions. In 
like manner, those who contemplate only the fragments 
or pieces broken off from any science, dispered in short 
unconnected discourses, and do not discern their rela- 
tion to each other, and how they may be adapted, and 
by their union procure the delightful symmetry of a 
regular scheme, can never survey an entire body of 
truth, but must always view it as deformed and dis- 
membered ; while their ideas, which must be ever in 
distinct, and often repugnant, will lie in the brain un - 
sorted, and thrown together without order or cohe- 
rence : Such is the knowledge of those men who live 
upon the scraps of the sciences 

A youth of genius and lively imagination, of an active 
and forward spirit, may form within himself some al- 
luring scenes and pleasing schemes in the beginning 
of a science, which are utterly inconsistent with some of 
the necessary and substantial parts of it, which appear 
in the middle or the end. And if he never read and 
pass through the whole, he takes up and is satisfied 
with his own hasty pleasing schemes, and treasures 
these errors up amongst his solid acquisitions ; whereas 
his own labour a>sd study farther pursued, would have 
shewn him his early mistakes, and cured him of his self 
nattering delusions. 

Hence it comes to pass, that we have so many half 
scholars now a days, and there is so much confusion and 
inconsistency in the notions and opinions of some per 
sons, because they devote their hours of study entirely 
to short essays and pamphlets, and cast contempt upon 
systems under a pretence of greater politeness , 
whereas the true reason ot this contempt of systematic- 
al learning, is mere laziness and want of judgment 

II. After we are grown well acquainted with a short 
system or compendium of a science, which is written in 
the plainest and most simple manner, it is then proper 
to read a large regular treatise on that subject, if wp 
design a complete knowledge and cultivation of it ; and 
either while we are reading thia larger system, or after 



180 OF THE SCIENCES,, |! 

we have done it, then occasional discourses and essays ? 
upon the particular subjects and parts of that science f 
may be read with the greatest profit ; for in these es- ll 
says we may often find very considerable a rrections k 
and improvements of what these compends, or even f 
the larger systems may have taught us, mingled with \- 
some mistakes. p 

And these corrections or improvements should be as b 
remarks adjoined by way of note or commentary in i 
their proper places", and superadded to the regular ! 
treatise we have read. Then a studious and judicious I 
review of the whole will give us a tolerable acquaint- 
ance with that science. • 

III. It is a great happiness to have such a tutor, or 
such friends and companions at hand, who are able to 
inform us what are the best books written on any sci- 
ence, or any special part of it. For want of this advan- 
tage, many a man has wasted his time in reading over 
perhaps some whole volumes, and learned little more by 
it than to know that these volumes were not worth his 
reading. 

IV. As for the languages, they are certainly best 
learned in the younger years of life. ' The memory is then 
most empty and unfurnished, and ready to receive new 
ideas continually. We find that children, in two years 
time after they are born, learn to speak their native 
tongue. 

V. The mere abstracted sciences 8 which depend 
more upon the understanding and judgment, and which 
deal much in abstracted ideas, should not be imposed 
upon children too soon ; such are logic, metaphysics, 
ethics, politics, or the depths and difficulties of gram- 
mar and criticism. Yet it must be confessed, the first 
rudiments of grammar are necessary, or at least very 
convenient to be known, when a youth learns a new lan- 
guage ; and some general easy principles and rules of 
morality and divinity are needful, in order to teach a 
child his duty to God and man ; but to enter far into 
abstracted retsonings on these subjects is beyond the 
capacity of children. 

VI. There are several of the sciences that will more 
agreeably employ our younger years, and the general 
parts of vhem may be easily taken m by boys. The first 
principles and the easier practices of arithmetic, geom- 
etry, plain trigonometry, measuring heights, depths, 



^ND THEIR USE. 18 i. 

lengths, distances, &c. the rudiments of geometry ana 
jastronomy, together with something of mechanics, ma; 
be easily conveyed into the minds ut acute young per- 
; sons from nine or ten years old and upwards. — These 
studies may be entertaining and useful to young ladies 
as well as to gentlemen, and to ail those wno are bred 
up to the learned professions. The fair sex may inter- 
mingle those with the operations of the needle, and the 
knowledge of domestic iife. Boys may be taught to 
join them with their rudiments cf grammar, and their 
labour in the languages. And even those who never 
learn any language "but their mother tongue, may be 
taught these sciences with lasting benefit in early days. 

That this may be done with ease and advantage, take 
these three reasons: 

(1.) Because they depend so much upon schemes and 
numbers, images, lines, and figures, and sensible things, 
that the imagination or fancy will greatiy assist the uti* 
derstanding, and render the knowledge of them much 
more easy. 

(2.) These studies are so pleasant, that they will 
make the dry labour of learning words, phrases, and 
languages, more tolerable to boys in a Latin school, by 
this most agreeable mixture. The employ mert of youth 
in these studies, will tempt them to neglect many of toe 
foolish plays of childhood, and they will find sweeter en- 
tertainment for themselves and their leisure hours, by a 
cultivation of these pretty pieces of alluring knowledge, 

(3.) The knowledge of these parts of science are 
both easy and worthy to be retained in the memory by 
all children when they come to manly years, for they 
are useful through all the parts of human lite : They 
tend to enlarge the understanding early, and to give a 
various acquaintance with useful subjects betimes- 
And surely it is best, as far as possible, to train up chil- 
dren in the knowledge of those things which they should 
never forget, rather than to let them waste years of life 
in trifles, or in hard words which are not worth remem- 
bering. 

And here by the way, I cannot but wonder that, anv 
author in our age should have attempted to teach any 
of the exploded physics of Descartes, or the noble in- 
ventions of Sir Isaac Newton, in his hypothesis, of the 
heavenly bodies, and their motions, in his doctrine of 
light and colours, and other parts of his physiology, or to 



182 



OF THE SCIENCES, 



instruct children in the knowledge of the theory of the 
heavens, earth, and planets, without any figures or dia- 
grams. Is it possible to give a boy or a young lady the 
clear, distinct,and proper apprehensions of these things, F 
without hnes and figures to describe them ? Does not | 
their understanding want the aid ol fancy and images n 
to convey stronger and juster ideas of them to the in- ,. 
most soul ? Or do they imagine that youth can pene- I 
Irate into all these beauties and artifices of nature, : 
without these helps which persons of maturer age find f, 
necessary for that purpose ? I would not willingly name i 
the books, because some of the writers are said to be f 
gentlemen of excellent acquirements. 

VII. Alter we have first learnt and gone through any 
of .hpse arts and sciences which are to be explained by | 
diagrams, figures, and schemes ; such as geometry, ge- j 
ography, astronomy, optics, mechanics, &c. we may i 
best preserve them in memory, by having those schemes 
and figures in large sheets of paper, hanging always 
before the eye in closets, parlours, halls, chambers, en- 
tries, staircases, See. Thus the learned images will be 
perpetually impressed on the brain, and will keep the 
learning that depends upon them alive and fresh in the 
mind through the growing years of life : the mere dia- 
grams and figures will ever recalto our thoughts those 
theorems, problems, and corroliaries, which have been 
demonstrated by them. 

It is incredible how much geography may be learnt 
this way by the two terrestrial hemispheres, and by 
particular maps and charts of the coasts and countries 
of the earth, happily disposed round ab> ut us. Thus 
we may learn also the constellations, by jusc projections 
of the celestial sphere, hung up in the same manner. 
And I must confess, for the bulk of learners of astrono- 
mv, I like that projection of the stars best, which in- 
cludes in it all the stars of our horizon, and therefore it 
reaches to the 33£ degrees of southern latitude, though 
its centre is the north pole. This gives us a better 
view of the heavenly bodies, as they appear every night 
to us ; and it may be made use ol with a little instruc- 
tion, and with ease, to serve for a nocturnal, and shew 
the true hour of the night. 

Bur remember, if there be any colouring upon 
these maps or projections, it should be laid on so thin 
as not to obscure or conceal any part of the lines, fig- 



AND THSIR USE. 183 

ures, or letters ; whereas most times they are daubed 
so thick with gay and glaring colours, and hung up so 
high above the reach of the eye that should survey and 
read them, as though their only design were to make a 
gaudy show upon tne wall, and they hung there mere- 
ly to cover the naked plaister or wainscot. Those sci- 
ences which may be drawn out into tables may also be 
thus hung up and disposed in proper places, such as 
brief abstracts of history, chronology, &c. and indeed 
the schemes of any of the a? or sciences may be ana- 
lized in a sort of skeleton, a< J represented upon tables, 
with various dependencies and connexions of their seve- 
ral parts and subjects that belong to them. Mi. Solo- 
mon Lowe has happily thrown the grammar of several 
languages into such tables ; and a frequent review of 
these abstracts and epitomes would tend much to im- 
print them on the brain, when they have been once well 
learned ; this would keep those learned traces always 
open, and assist the weakness of a labouring memory. 
In this manner may a scheme of the scripture history 
be drawn out, and perpetuate those ideas in the mind 
with which our daily reading furnishes us. 

VIII. Every man who pretends to the character of a 
scholar should attain some general and superficial ideas 
of most or all the sciences ; for there is a certain con- 
nexion among the various parts of human knowledge, so 
that some notions borrowed from any one science* may 
assist our acquaintance with any other, either by way 
of explication, illustration, or proof ; though there are 
some sciences conjoined by a much nearer affinity than 
others. 

IX. Let those parts of every science be chiefly studied 
at first, and reviewed afterwards, which have a more 
direct tendency to assist our proper profession, as men, 
or our general profession as Christians, always observ- 
ing what we ourselves have found most necessary and 
useful to us in the course of our lives Age aed expe- 
rience will teach us to judge which of the sciences, and 
which parts of them, have been of greatest use, and are 
most valuable ; but in younger years of life we are not 
sufficient judges of this matter, and therefore should 
seek advice from those who are elder. 

X. There are three learned professions among us, viz. 
| divinity, law, and medicine. Though every man who 
I pretends to be a scholar or a gentleman, should so far 
i 



184 OF THE SCIENCES, 

acquaint himself with a superficial scheme of all these* 
sciences, as not to stand amazed like a mere stranger 
at the mention of the common subjects that belong to) 
them ; yet there is no necessity- for every man of learn- j 
ing to enter into their difficulties and deep recesses, nort 
to climb the heights to which some others have arrived. 
The knowledge of them in a proper measure may bej 
happily useful to every profession, not only because allj 
arts and sciences have a sort of communion and connex-i 
ion with each other, but it is an angelic pleasure to growj 
in knowledge, it is a matter of honour and esteem, and| 
renders a man more agreeable and acceptable in every) 
company. 

But let us survey several of them more particularly, 
with regard to the learned professions ; and first of the 
mathematics. 

XI. Though I have so often commended mathemat- 
ical studies, and particularly the speculations of arith- 
metic and geometry, as a means to fix a wavering mind,| 
to beget an habit of attention, and to improve the faculty! 
of reason; vet I would by no means be understood toj 
recommend to all a pursuit of these sciences to those ex- 
tensive lengths to which the moderns have advanced' 
them. This is neither necessary nor proper for any stu-j 
dents, but those few who shall make these studies theiri 
chief profession and business of life, or those gentlemen 
whose capacities and turn of mind are suited to thesej 
studies, and have all manner of advantage to improve! 
in them). 

The general principles of arithmetic, algebra, geom-i 
etiy, and trigonometry, of geography, of modern astron-j 
omy, mechanic:-, stutics, and optics, have their valuable; 
and excellent uses not only for the exercise and improve- 
ment of the faculties of the mind, but the subjects them- 
selves are very well worth our knowledge m a moderate 
degree,andare often made of admirable service in human! 
life. So much of these subjects as Dr. Wells has given; 
us in his three volumes, entitled, " The Young GentleA 
man's Mathematics" is richly sufficient tor the greatest] 
pait of scholars or gentlemen; though perhaps there 
may be some single treatises, at least on some of these 
subjects, which may be better written and more useful 
to be perused, than those of that learned author. 

But a penetration into the abstruse difficulties 
nnd depths of modem algebra and fluxions, the various 



AND THEIR USE. 185 

methods of quadratures, the mensuration of all manner 
of curves, and their mutual transformation, and twenty- 
other things that some modern mathematicians deal in, 
are not worth the labour of these who design either of 
the three learned professions, divinity, law, or physic, 
as the business of life. This is the sentence of a consid- 
erable man, viz. Dr. George Cheyne, who was a very 
good proficient and writer on these subjects : He affirms, 
that they are but barren and airy studies for a man 
entirely to live upon, and that for a man to indulge and 
riot in these exquisitely bewitching contemplations, is 
only proper for public professors, or for gentlemen of 
estates, who have a strong propensity this way, and a 
genius fit to cultivate them. 

But, says he, to own a great but grievous truth, though 
they may quicken and sharpen the invention, strength- 
en and extend the imagination, improve and refine the 
reasoning faculties, and are of use both in the necessary 
and the luxurious refinement of the mechanical arts"; 
yet, having no tendency to rectify the will, to sweeten 
the temper, or mend -the heart, they often leave a stiff- 
ness, a positiveness and sufficiency on weak minds, 
which is much more pernicious to society, and to the in- 
terests of the great end of our being, than all their ad- 
vantages can recompense. He adds further, concerning 
the launching into the depth of these studies, that they 
are apt to beget a secret and refined pride, and over- 
weening and over-bearing vanity, the most opposite 
temper to the true spirit of the gospel. This tempts 
them to presume on a kind of omniscience in respect to 
their fellow creatures, who have not risen to their ele- 
vation ; nor are they fit to be trusted in the hands of any 
but those who have acquired a humble heart, a lowly 
spirit, and a sober and teachable temper. See Dr, 
Chevne's preface to his Essay on Health and Long Life. 

XII. Some of the practical parts of geometry, astron- 
omy, dialling, optics, statics, mechanics, &c» may be 
agreeable entertainments and amusements to students 
in every profession, at leisure hours, if they enjoy such 
circumstances of life as to furnish them with convenien- 
ces for this sort of improvement ; but let them take 
great care lest they entrench upon more necessary em- 
ployments, and so fall under the charge and censure of 
wasted time. 

Yet I cannot help making this observation, that wtiere 
R 



18(5 OE THE SCIENCES, 

students, or indeed any young gentlemen,^ have in their 
early years made themselves masters of a variety of 
elegant problems in the mathematical circle of knowl- 
edge, and gained the most easy, neat, and entertaining 
experiments in natural philosophy, with some short and 
agreeable speculations or practices in any other of the 
arts and sciences, they have hereby laid a foundation 
for the esteem and love of mankind among those with 
whom they converse, in higher or lower ranks of life ; 
they have been often guarded by this means from the 
temptation of guilty pleasures, and have secured both 
their own hours and the hours of their companions from 
running fco waste in sauntering and trifles, and from a 
thousand impertinences in silly dialogues. Gaming and 
drinking, and many criminal and foolish scenes of talk 
and action, have been prevented by these innocent and 
improving elegancies of knowledge. 

XIII. History is a necessary study in the supreme 
place for gentlemen who deal in politics. The govern- 
ment of nations, and distressful and desolating events 
which have in all ages attended the mistakes of politi- 
cians, should be ever present on their minds, to warn 
them to avoid the like conduct. Geography and chro- 
nology, which precisely inform us of the place and time 
where such transactions or events happened, are the 
eyes of history, and of absolute necessity in some meas- 
ure to attend it. 

But history: so far as relates to the affairs of the Bible, 
ys as necessary to divines as to gentlemen of any profes- 
sion. It helps us to reconcile many difficulties in script- 
ure, and demonstrates a Divine Providence. Dr. Pri- 
deaux's Connexion of the Old and New Testament is 
an excellent treatise of this kind. 

XIV. Among the smaller histories, biography or the 
memoirs of the lives of great and good men, has a high 
rank in my esteem, as worthv of the perusal of every 
person who devotes himself to the study of divinity. 
Therein we frequently find our holy religion reduced to 
practice, and many p>rts of Christianity shining with a 
tr-mscendant and exemplary light. We learn there 
How 5 deeply sensible c.reat and good men have been of 
the ruins of human nature, by the first apostasy from 
God, and how they have toiled and laboured, and turn- 
ed themselves on all sides, to seek a recovery, in vain, 
till they have found the gospel of Christ an all sufficient 



AND THEIR USE, 1$7 

relief. We are there furnished with effectual and un- 
answerable evidences that the religion of Jesus, with all 
its self denials, virtues and devotions, is a very practica- 
ble thing, since it has been earned to such a degree of 
honour by some wise and holy men. We have Oeen 
there assured, that the pleasures and satisfactions oi the 
Christian life, in its present practice and future hopes 3 
are not the mere raptures of fancy and enthusiasm „ 
when some of the strictest professors of reason have 
added the sanction or their testimony. 

In short, the lives or memoirs of persons of piety, well 
written, have been of infinite and unspeakable advan- 
tage to the disciples and professors of Christianity, and 
have given us admirable instances and rules how to re- 
sist every temptation of a soothing or frowning world, 
how to practise important and difficult duties, how to 
love God above ail, and to lov<e our neighbour as our- 
selves, to live by the faith of the Son of Goo, and to die 
in the same faith, in sure and certain hope of a resur- 
rection to eternal life, 

XV. Remember that logic and ontology or metaphys* 
ics are necessary sciences, though they have been great- 
ly abused by scholastic writers, who have professed to 
teach them in former ages. Not only all students,wheth- 
er they design the profession of theology, law or physic, 
but all gentlemen should at least acquire a superficial 
knowledge of them. The introduction of so many sub- 
tleties, nice distinctions, and insignificant terms, without 
clear ideas, has brought a great part of the logic and 
metaphysics of the schools into just contempt. Their 
logic has appeare •: the mere art of wrangling, and their 
metaphysics the skill of splitting an hair, of distinguish- 
ing witaout a difference, and of putting long hard names 
upon common things* and sometimes upon a confused 
jumble of things, which have no clear ideas belonging 
to them. 

It is certain that an unknown heap of trifles and im- 
pertinences have been intermingled with these useful 
parts of learning, upon which account many persons in 
this polite age, have -made it a part of their breeding to 
throw a jest upon them ; and to rally them well has 
been esteemed a move valuable talent than to under- 
stand them. 

But this is running into wide extremes ; nor ought 
these part* of science to be abandoned by the wise, be- 



i88 •* THE SCIENCES, 

cause some writers of former ages have played the fool 
■with them. True lo^ic teaches us to use our reason 
well, and brings a light into the understanding ; true 
metaphysics, or ontology, casts a light upon all the ob- 
jects of thought and meditation, by ranging every being, 
with all the absolute and relative perfections and 
properties, modes, and attendants oi it, in proper ranks 
or classes, and thereby it discovers the various relations 
of things to each other, and what are their general or 
special differences from each other, wherein a great 
part of human knowledge consists. And by this means 
it greatly conduces to instruct us in method, or the dis- 
position of every thing into its proper rank or class of 
beings, attributes, or actions. 

XVI. If I were to say any thing of natural philosophy, 
I would venture to lay down my sentiments thus : 

I think it must needs be very useful to a divine to un- 
derstand something of natural science. The mere na- 
tural history of birds, beasts, and fishes, of insects, trees, 
and plants, as well as of meteors, such as clouds, thunder, 
lightnmgs, snow, hail, frost, &c. in all their common or 
uncommon appearances, may be of considerable use to 
one who studies divinity, to give him a wider and more 
delightful view of the works of God, and to furnish him 
with lively and happy images and metaphors drawn 
from the large volume of nature, to display and repre- 
sent the things of God and religion* in the most beauti- 
ful and affecting colours. 

And it the mere history of these things be useful for 
this purpose, surely it will be of further advantage to be 
led into the reasons, causes, and effects of these natural 
objects and appearances, and to know the established 
laws of nature, matter and motion, whereby the great 
God carries on his extensive works of providence from 
the creation to this d;iy. 

I confess the old Aristotelean scheme of this science 
will teach us but very little that <s worth knowing, about 
these matters; but the later writers, who have explain- 
ed nature and its operations in a more sensible and geo- 
metrical manner, are well worth the moderate study of 
a divine ; especially those who have followed the prin- 
ciples of that wonder of our age and nation, Sir Isaac 
^Newton. There is much pleasure and entertainment, 
as well as real profit, to be derived from those admira- 
ble improvements which have been advanced ifi natur~ 



AND THEIR U5£. 18S 

I a-1 philosophy in late years, by the assistance of aiathe- 
j matical learning, as well as from the multitude of exper- 
iments which have been made, and are stiil making, in 
natural subjects. 

XVII. This is a science which indeed eminently be- 
longs to the physician ; he ought to know all the parts 
of human nature, what are the sound and healthy func- 
tions of an animal body, and what are the distempers 
and dangers which attend it; he should also be furnish- 
ed with a large knowledge of plants and minerals, and 
every thing which makes up the materia medica, or the 
ingredients of which medicines are made ; and many 
other things in natural philosophy are subservient to his 
profession, as well as the kindred art of surgery. 

XVIII. Questions about the powers and operations of 
nature may also sometimes come into the lawyer's cog- 
nizance, especially such as relate to assaults, wounds, 
murders, &c. I remember I have read the trial of a 
man for murder by drowning, wherein the judge on the 
bench heard several arguments concerning the lungs 
being filled or not filled with water, by inspiration or ex 
piration, &c. to all which he professed himself so much 
a stranger, as did not do him any great honour in public. 

XIX. But I think no divine, who can obtain it, should 
be utterly destitute of this knowledge. By the assistance 
of this study, he will be better able to survey the various 
monuments of creating wisdom in the heavens,the earth, 
and the seas, with wonder and worship ; and by the use 
of a moderate skill in this science, he may communicate 
so much of the astonishing works of God, in the forma- 
tion and government of ihis visible world, and so far in- 
struct many of his hearers, as may assist the transfusion 
of the same ideas into their minds, and raise them to the 
same delightful exercises of devotion. O Lord, how 
manifold are thy works ! In wisdom hast thou made 
them all ! They are sought out by all that have pleas- 
ure in them. 

Besides, it is worthy of the notice of every student h 
theology, that he ought to have some acquaintance with 
the principles of nature, that he may judge a little how 
far they will go ; so that he may not be imposed upon 
to take every strange appearance in nature for a mira- 
cle, that he may reason the clearer upon this subject, 
that he may better confirm the miracles of Moses and 
of Christ, nor yield up his faith to any pretences ofprc- 
R 2 



190 OF THE SCIENCES, 

digy and wonder, which are either the occasional and 
uncommon operaibns of the elements, or the crafty 
sleights of men well skilled in philosophy and mechanic - 
al operations to delude the simple. 

XX. The knowledge also of animal nature, and of 
the rational soul of man, and the mutual influence of 
these two ingredients of our composition upon each oth- 
er, is worthy the study of a divine. It is of great im- 
portance to persons of this character and office, to judge 
how far the animal powers have influence upon such and 
such particular appearances and practices ol mankind ; 
how far the appetites or passions of human nature are 
owing- to the flesh and blood, or to the mind ; how far they 
may be. moderated, and how far they ought to be sub- 
dued ; and w'nat are the happiest methods of obtaining 
these ends. By this science also we may be better in- 
formed how far these passions or appetites are lawful, 
and how far they are criminal,, by considering how far 
they are subject to the power of the will, and how 
far they may be changed, and corrected by our watch- 
fulness, care and diligence. 

It comes also vei y properly under the cognizance of 
this profession, to be able in some measure to determine 
qki stions which may arise relating to real inspiration, 
or prophecy, to wild enthusiasm, to fits of a convulsive 
kind, to melancholy or phrenzy, &c. and what direc- 
tion's are proper to be given concerning any appearan- 
ces of this nature. 

XXI. Next to the knowledge of natural things, and 
acquaintance with the human nature and constitution, 
which is made up cf soul and body, I think that natural 
religion properly takes its place. This consists of these 
two parts, viz. (1.) The speculative or contemplative, 
which is the Know edge of God in his various perfec- 
tions, and in his relations to his rational creatures^ so 
far as may be known by the light of nature, which 
heretofore used to be called the second part of metar 
physics. Itjncludes also, (2.) That which is practical 
or active, that is, the knowledge of the several duties 
which arise from our relation to God, and our relation 
to our fellow creatures, and the ptjoper conduct and gov- 
ernment of ourselves ; this has been used to be called 
ethics, or moral philosophy. 

XXII. The knowledge of these things is proper for 
all men of learning ; not only because it teaches them to 



AMD THEIR USE. 191 

obtain just views of the several parts of revealed religion 
and of Christianity, which are built upon them, but be- 
cause every branch of natural religion and of moral duty 
is contained, and necessarily implied, in all the revealed 
religions that ever God prescribed to the world, We 
may well suspect that religion does not come from God, 
which renounces any part of natural duty. 

Whether mankind live under the dispensation of the 
patriarchs, or of Moses, or the prophets, or of our Lord 
Jesus Christ, still we are bound to know the one true 
God, and to practise all that adoration and reverence, 
all that love to him, that faith in his perfections, with 
that obedience and submission to his will, which natural 
religion requires. We are still bound to exercise that 
justice, truth and goodness towards our neighbours, that 
restraint and moderation of our own appetites and pas- 
sions, and that regular behaviour towards ourselves and 
all our fellow crtatures around us, which moral philos- 
ophy teaches. There is no sort of reveaitd religion that 
will dispense with these natural obligations ; and a hap- 
py acquaintance with the several appetites, inclinations, 
and passions of human nature, and the best methods to 
rule and restrain, to direct and govern them, are cur 
constant business, and ought to be our everlasting study. 
Yet I would lay down this caution, viz. That since stu- 
dents are instructed in the knowledge of the true God 
in their lectures on Christianity, and since among the 
Christian duties they are also taught all the moral dic- 
tates of the Ii^ht of nature, or a complete scheme of eth- 
ics, there is no absolute necessity of learning these two 
parts of natural religion, as distinct sciences, separate 
and by themselves; but still it is of great importance for 
a tutor, while he is reading to his pupils these parts of 
the Christian religion, to give them notice how far the 
light of nature or mere reason will instruct us in these 
doctrines and duties, and how far we are obliged to di- 
vine revelation and scripture, for clearing up and estab- 
lishing the firm foundations of the one, for affording us 
superior motives and powers to practise the other, for 
raising them to more exalted degrees, and building so 
glorious a superstructure upon them. 

XXIII. The study of natural religion, viz. The knowl- 
edge of God and the rules of virtue and piety, as far as 
they are discovered by the light of nature, is needful in- 
deed to prove the truth of divine revelation or scripture. 



192 OF THE SCIENCES, 

la the most effectual manner: but after the divine au- 
thority of scripture is established, that will be a very suf- 
ficient spring from whence the bulk of mankind may 
derive their knowledge of divinity, or the Christian re- 
ligion, ^n order to their own present faith and practice, 
and their future and eternal happiness. In this sense 
theology is a science necessary for every one that hopes 
for the favour of God, and the felicity of another world ; 
and it is of infinitely more importance than any of the 
arts and sciences which belong to any of the learned pro- 
fessions here on earth. 

XXIV, Perhaps it will be thought necessary I should 
say something concerning the study of the civil law, or 
the law of nature and nations. 

If we would speak with great justness and propriety, 
the civil law signifies the peculiar law of each state, 
country, or city ; but what we now a days usually mean 
by the civil law, is a body of laws composed out of the 
best of the Roman and Grecian laws, and which was in 
the main received and observed through ail the Roman 
dominions for above twelve hundred years. 

The Romans took the first grounds of this law from 
what they call the twelve tables, which were the abridg- 
ments of the laws of Solon at Athens, and of the other 
cities in Greece famous for knowledge and wisdom ; to 
which they added their own ancient customs of the city 
of Rome, and the laws which were made there. These 
written laws were subject to various interpretations, 
whence controversies daily arising, they were determin- 
ed by the judgment of the learned ; and these determin- 
ations were what they first called Jus Civile.-*— All this 
bv degrees grew to a vast number of volumes ; and 
therefore the Emperor Justinian commanded his chan- 
cellor Tribonian to reduce them to a perfect body, and 
this is called the body of the civil law. 

XXV. But that which is of most importance for all 
learned men to be acquainted with, is the law of nature, 
or the knowledge of right and wrong among mankind, 
whether it be transacted between single persons or com- 
munities, so far as common reason and the light of na- 
ture dictates and directs. This is what Puffendorff calls 
the law of nature and nations, as will appear if you con- 
sult Sect. 3. Chap. III. of that most valuable folio he has 
written on the subject; which is well worthy the study 
of every man of learning, particularly lawyers and dU 



AND THEIR USE. 19S 

vines, together with other treatises on the same theme. 
! If any question proposed relate to right and property, 
i and justice between man and man, in any polite and civ- 
i ilized country, though it must be adjudged chiefly accord- 
! ing to the particular statutes and laws of that country, 
1 yet the knowledge of the law of nature will very consid- 
erably assist the lawyer and the civil judge in the deter- 
mination thereof. And this knowledge will be of great 
use to divines, not only in deciding of cases of conscience 
among men, and answering any difficult inquiries which 
may be proposed to them on this subject, but it will great- 
ly assist them also in their studies relating to the law cf 
God, and the performance or violation th -reef, the na- 
ture of duty and sin, rewards and punishments. 

XXVI. I have spoken something of the languages 
before, but let me here resume the subject, and put in a 
few thoughts about those studies which are wont to be 
called philological ; such as history, languages, gram- 
mar, rhetoric, poesy, and criticism. 

An acquaintance with some of the learned languages 
at least, is necessary for all the three learned professions. 

XXVII. The lawyers, who have the least need of 
foreign tongues, ought to understand Latin. During 
many ages past, very important matters in the law were 
always written and managed in that language by the 
lawyers, as prescriptions in medicine by the physicians, 
and citations of the scriptures in divinity were always 
made in Latin by the divines. Prayers also were ordain- 
ed to be said publicly and privately in the Roman tongue; 
p.ater nostcrs xnfr { ave marias were halt the devotions of 

those ages. These cruel impositions upon the people 
would not suffer them to read in their own mother tongue 
what was done, either to or for their own souls, their 
bodies, or their estates, I am ready to suspect this was 
all owing to the craft and policy of the priesthood and 
church of Rome, which endeavoured to aggrandize 
themselves, and exalt their own profession into a sore- 
reign tyranny, and to make mere slaves of the laity a- 
mong mankind, by keeping them in utter ignorance, 
darkness, and dependence. And they were willing to 
compound the matter with the physicians and the law- 
yers, and allow them a small share in this tyranny over 
the populace, to maintain their own supreme dominion 
over all. 
But we thank God the world is grown something 



194 OE THE SCIENCES, 

wiser ; and of late years the British Parliament has been 
pleased to give relief from that bondage in matters re- 
lating to the law also, as in the age of the Reformation 
we were delivered from saying our prayers in Latin, 
from being bound to read the word of God in a tongue 
unknown to the people, and from living in everlasting 
subjection to the clergy in matters of this life, and the 
life to come. 

But to return : There are still so many forms of pro- 
ceedings in judicature, and things called" by Latin names 
in the professions of the law, and so many barbarous 
words with Latin terminations, that it is necessary law- 
yers should understand this language. Some acquaint- 
ance also with the old French tongue is needful tor the 
same persons and professions, since the tenures of Ly ttle- 
ton, which are a sort of Bible to the gentlemen of the 
long robe, were written in that language ; and this tongue 
has been interwoven in some forms of the English law, 
from the days of William the Conqueror, who came 
from Normandy in France. 

XXVIII. Physicians should be skilled in the Greek as 
well as in the Latin, because their great master Hippoc- 
rates wrote in that tongue, and his writings are still of 
good value and use. A multitude of the names, both of 
the parts of the body, of diseases, and of medicines, are 
derived from the Greek language ; and there are many 
excellent books of physic, both in the theoretical and 
practical parts of it, which are delivered to the world in 
the Roman tongue ; and of which that profession should 
not be ignorant. 

XXIX. Such as intend the study of theology should 
be well acquainted also with the Latin, because it has 
been for many hundred years the language of the schools 
of learning; their disputations are generally limited to 
that language, and many and excellent books of divini- 
ty must be entirely concealed fspm the students, unless 
they pre acquainted with Latin authors 

But those that design the sacred profession of theolo- 
gy, should make it their labour of chief importance to 
be very conversant whh their Bibles, both in the Old 
and New -Testament; and this requires some knowl- 
edge of those original languages, Greek and Hebrew, 
in which the scriptures were written. All that will 
pursue these studies with honour, should be able to read 
the Old Testament tolerably in the Hebrew tongue ; at 



f 

AND THEIR USE, 195 

(least they should be so far acquainted with it, as to find 
but the sense of a text by the help of a dictionary. But 
i xurce any man should be thought worthy of the name of 
[ia solid divine, or a skilful teacher of the gospel, in these 
! !days of light and liberty, unless he has pretty good 
knowledge of the Greek, since all the important points 
jof the Christian religion are derived from the New Tes- 
tament, which was first written in that language. 

XXX, As for the Syriac and Arabic tongues, if one 
divine in thirty, or in three hundred, travel far into these 
regions, it is enough. A few learned men skilled in 
these languages will make sufficient remarks upon them 
for the service of the whole Christian world ; which re- 
marks may sometimes happen to be of use to those di- 
vines who are unacquainted with them, in reading the 
Bible. But the advantage of these tongues is not of so 
great importance as it has been too often represented. 
My reader will agree with me, when he considers that 
the chief uses of them are these : 

The Arabic is a language which has some kindred and 
affinity to the Hebrew, and perhaps we m£y r now and 
then guess at the sense of some uncommon and doubtful 
Hebrew word, which is found but once or twice in the 
Bible, by its supposed affinity to the Arabic ; but what- 
ever conjectures may be made by some kindred of a 
Hebrew word to an Arabic root, yet there is no certain- 
ty to be gathered from it ; for even words of the same 
language, which are undoubtedly derived from the same 
theme or primitive, will give us but very doubtful and 
sorry information concerning the true sense of kindred 
words which spring from the same theme. 

Let me give a plain instance or two of this uncertain- 
ty. ' The word strages signifies slaughter ; stratum is 
Latin for a bed ; stramen is straw ; and • stragulum is 
a quilt or coverlet : They are all drawn and derived 
from stemo, which signifies to throw down, to kill, or to 
spread abroad. Let the cities tell me what certain 
sense they could put upon either of these four words by 
their mere cogna ion with each other, or their. derivation 
from one common verb. Again, who can tell me the 
certain meaning and precise idea of the word honest in 
Englishman' i assure me that it signifies a man of integ- 
rity, justice, and probity, though it is evidently derived 
from hbriestus in Latin? Whereas honestus has a very 
different idea, and signifies a man of some figure in the 



196 OF THE SCIENCES, 

world, or a man of honour. Let any man judge then 
how little service toward explaining the Hebrew tongue 
can be furnished, from all the language of Arabia. Sure- 
ly a great part of the long learned fatigues and tiresome 
travels of men through this country, is almost vain and 
useless to make the Hebrew Bible better understood. 

As for the Syriac language, it is granted there may 
be some small advantage drawn from the knowledge of 
it, because there is a very ancient translation of the New 
Testament in that tongue ; and perhaps this may some- 
times give a proper and opposite meaning to a difficult 
and doubtful text, and offer a fair hint for recovering the 
true meaning of the scripture from the perverse glosses 
of other writers. But there are several commentators 
and lexicographers who have been acquainted with the 
Syriac language, and have given us the chief of these 
hints in their writings on scripture. 

And after all, since none of these assistances can yield 
us a sufficient proof of a true interpretation, and give 
a certain sense of a text, who would be persuaded 
to waste any great number of his better hours in such 
dry studies, and in labours of so littie profit ? 

XXXI. The Chaldean language indeed is much near- 
er to the Hebrew, and it is proper for a divine to have 
some acquaintance with it, because there are several 
verses or chapters of Ezra and Daniel which are writ- 
ten in that language ; and the old Jewish targums or 
commentaries, wh'Ch are written in the Chaldean tongue, 
may sometimes happen to cast a little light upon a doubt- 
ful scripture of the Old Testament. 

Bat it must be still owned, that the knowledge of these 
eastern tongues does not deserve to be magnified to such 
a degree as some of the proficients in them have indulg- 
ed; wherein they have carried matters beyond all rea- 
son and justice, since scarce any of the mo^t important 
subjects of the gospel of Christ, and the Avay of salvation, 
can gain any advantage from them. 

XXXII. The art of grammar comes now to be men- 
tioned It is a distinct thing from the mere knowledge 
of the languages ; for ali mankind are taught from their 
infancy to speak their common tongue, by a natural imi- 
tati< n of their mothers cind nurses, and those who are 
round about them, without any knowledge of the art of 
gram mar, and the various observations and rules that 
rehte to it. Grammar, indeed} is nothing else but ruie> 



AND THEIR USE,. 137 

and observations drawn from the common speech_of 
mankind in their several languages ; and it teaches us 
to speak and pronounce, to spell and write with propri- 
ety and exactness, according to the custom of those iii 
every nation, who are or were supposed to speak and 
write their own language best : Now it is a shame for a 
maii to pretend to science and study in any of the three 
learned professions, who is not in some measure acquaint- 
ed with the propriety of those languages with which he 
ought to be conversant in his daily studies, and more es- 
pecially in such as he may sometimes be called upon to 
write as well as read. 

XXXIII. Next to grammar, we proceed to consider 
rhetoric. 

Now rhetoric in general is the art of persuading, which 
maybe distinguished into these three parts, viz. (1.) 
Conveying the sense of the speaker to the understanding 
of the hearers in the clearest and most intelligible man- 
ner, by the plainest expressions and the most lively and 
striking representations of it, so that the mind may be 
thoroughly convinced of the thing proposed. (2.) Per- 
suading the will effectually to choose or refuse the thing 
suggested and represented. (3.) Raising the passions in 
the most vivjd and forcible manner, so as to set all the 
soul and every power of nature at work, to pursue or 
avoid the thing in debate. 

To attain this end, there is not only a great deal of art 
necessary in the representation cf matters to the audito- 
ry, but also in the disposition or method of introducing 
these particular representations, together with the rea- 
sons which might convince, and the various methods 
*hich might persuade and prevail upon the hearers. 
There are certain seasons wherein a violent torrent of 
oration, in a disguised and concealed method, may be 
more tftecmal than all the nice foims of legic and rea- 
soning. Tne figures of interrogation and exclamation 
have sometimes a large place and happy effect in this 
sort Of discourse, and no figure ol speech should be want- 
ing here, where the speaker has art enough happily to 
introduce it. 

There are many remarks and rules laid down by the 
teachers of this art, to improve a young genius in those 
glorious talents whereby Tully and Demosthenes acquir- 
ed that amazing influence and success in their own age 
atiiS nation, and that immortal fame through all nations 
S 



198 OH THE 8CJE5SCES, 

and ages. And it is with great advantage these r-uler 
may be perused and learned. But a happy genins, a 
lively imagination, and warm passions, together with a. 
due degree of knowledge, and skill in the subject to be 
debated, and a perpetual perusal of the writings of the 
best orators, and hearing the best speakers, will do more 
to make an orator than all the rules of art in the world, 
without these natural talents, and this careful imitation 
of the most approved and happiest orators. 

XXXIV. Kow you will presently suppose that plead- 
ers at the bar have great need of this art of rhetoric ; but 
it has been a just doubt, whether pleading in our British 
courts of justice, before a skilful judge, should admit of 
any other aid from rhetoric than that which teaches to 
open a cause clearly, and spread it in the most perspic- 
uous, complete, and impartial manner before the eyes 
of him who judges; lor impai tial justic 2 bi jng fcj : t] g 
which is sought* there should be 1 . , used, uo el- 
oquence or ppwe£ of language en lo] ;'■:.. :. 
the will, cr wdj ;;uponth< ... - 3ns, es :the J'$c ives ;ii- 
tence of the j ; should ^e biassed or '^.^rpc.i into in- 
justice, F'.:v .. s reason, Mr. Locke- wcnld bar \l 
pleaders in the law for fee's out of his gov€ : .; 

clmi, ia bis posfchumqu.3 wpr ; ks, though that great nr an 
Hughtipossibly be too severe in so universal a censure ot 
the profession. 

XXXV. But the case is very different with regard 
to divides ; the eloquence of the pulpit, beyond all con- 
troversy, has a much larger extent, 

Their business is not to plead a cause of right and 
wrong before a wise and skilful judge, but to address all 
the yanks of .mankind, the high and low, the wise and the. 
unwise, the sober and the vicious, and persuade them all 
to pursue and persevere in virtue with regard to them- 
selves, in justice and goodness with regajrd to their neigh- 
bours, and piety towards God. These ire affairs of ev- 
erlasting importance, and most of the persons to whom 
these addresses are made, ore not wise and skilful judg- 
es, but are influenced and drawn strongly to the contra- 
ry side by then* own sinful appetites and passions, and 
bribed or biassed by the corrupt customs of the world. 

There is therefore a necessity not only of a clear and 
faithful representation of things to men, in order to con- 
vince their reason and judgment, but of all the skill and 
farce 01* pe.rsusion addressed to the .Will a»d the passions, 



ASS THEIR USE, 199 

So TuIIy addressed the whole senate cf Rome, and De- 
mosthenes the Athenian people, among 'whom were ca- 
pacities and inclinations of infinite variety ; and therefore 
they made use of all the lightning and thunder, all the 
entreaties and terrors, all the soothing elegancies and 
the flowery beauties of language which their art could 
furnish them with. Divines in the pulpit have much the 
same sort of hearers, and therefore they should imitate 
those ancient examples. The understanding indeed 
ought to be first convinced by the plainest and strongest 
force of reasoning ; but when this is done, all the pow- 
erful motives should be used, which have any just influ- 
ence upon human nature; all the springs of passion should 
be touched, 10 awaken the stupid and the thoughtless 
into consideration, to penetrate and melt the hardest 
heart, to persuade the unwilling, to excite the lazy, to 
reclaim the obstinate, and reform the vicious part of 
mankind, as well as to encourage those who are humble 
and pious, and to support their practice and their hope. 
The tribes of men are sunk into so fatal a degeneracy 
and dreadful distance from God, and from ail that is 
holy and happy, that all the eloquence which a preacher 
is master of, should be employed in order to recover the 
world from its shameful ruin and wretchedness by the 
gospel of our blessed Saviour, and restore it to virtue and 
piety, to God and happiness, by the divine power of this 
gospel. O may such glorious masters of sacred oratory 
never be wanting in the pulpits of the Christian world ! 

XXXVI. Shall I now speak something of my senti- 
ments concerning poesy ? 

As for books of pcesy, whether in the learned or in the 
modern languages, they are of great use to be read at 
hours of leisure, by all persons that make any pretence 
to good education or learning, and that for several rea- 
sons. 

1. Because there are many couplets or stanzas writ- 
ten in poetic measures, which contain a variety of mor- 
als or rules of practice, relating to the common pruden- 
tials of mankind, as well as to matters of reJigion ; and 
the poetic numbers (or rhyme, if there be any ) add very 
considerable force to the memory. 

Besides, many an elegant and admirable sentiment or 
description of things, which are found among the poets, 
are well worth commiting to memory, and the particular 
measures of verse greatly assist us in recollecting such 



200 OF THE SCIENCE?, 

excellent passages, which might sometimes raise our 
conversation from low and groveling subjects. 

2. In heroic verse, but especially in the grander lyrics, 
there are sometimes such noble elevations of thought 
and passion, as illuminate all things around us, and con- 
vey to the soul most exalted and magnificent images and 
sublime sentiments : these furnish us with glorious springs 
and mediums to raise and aggrandize our conceptions, 
to warm our souls, to awaken the better passions, and 
to elevate them to a divine pitch, and that for de- 
votional purposes. It is the lyric ode which has shown 
to the world some of the happiest examples of this kind, 
and I cannot say but this part of poesy has been my fa- 
vourite amusement above all others. 

And for this reason it is, that I have never thought 
the heroic poems, Greek, Latin, or English, which have 
obtained the highest fame in the world, are sufficiently 
diversified, exalted or animated, for want of the inter- 
spersion of now and then an elegiac or lyric ode. This 
might have been done with great and beautiful propri- 
ety, where the poet has introduced a song at a feast, or 
the joys of a victory, or the soliloquies of divine satisfac- 
tion, or the pensive and despairing agonies of distressing 
sorrow. Why should that which js called the most glo- 
rious form of poesy, be bound down and confined to such 
a long and endless uniformity of measures, when it should 
kindle or melt the soul, swell or sink it into ail the vari- 
ous and transporting changes of which human nature is 
capable ? 

Cowley, in his unfinished fragment of the Davideis. 
has shewn us this way to improvement ; and whatever 



irgil 

had happened to practise it, it would have been renown- 
ed and glorififd by every critic. I am greatly mistaken, 
if this wise mixture of number? would not be a further 
reach of perfection than they have ever attained to with- 
out it : let it be remembered, that it is not nature and 
strict reason, but a weak and awful reverence of anti- 
quity, and the vogue of fallible men, that has established 
those Greek and Roman writings as absolute and com- 
plete patterns. In several ages there have been some* 
men of learning who have very justly disputed this glo- 
ry, and have pointed to many of their mistakes. 



AND THEIR USE. 201 

3i But still there is another end of reading pcesy, and 
perhaps the most considerable advantage to be obtained 
from it by the bulk of mankind, and that is, to furnish 
our tongues with the richest and most polite variety of 
phrases and words upon all occasions of life or religion. 
He that writes well in verse, will often find a necessity 
to send his thoughts in search through all the treasure 
of words that express any one idea in the same language, 
that so he may comport with the measures, or the rhyme 
of the verse which he writes, or with his own most beauti- 
ful and vivid sentiments of the thing he describes. Now 
by much reading of this kind, we shall insensibly acquire 
the habit and skill of diversifying our phrases upon all 
occasions, and of expressing our ideas in the most pro- 
per ami beautiful language, whether we write or speak 
of the things of God or men. 

It is pity that some of these harmonious writers have 
ever indulged any thing uncleanly or impure to defile 
their paper and abuse the ears of their readers, or to of- 
fend against the rules of the nicest virtue and politeness : 
but still amongst the writings of Mr. Dryden, Mr. Pope, 
and Dr, Young, as well as others, there is a sufficient 
choice in our own language, wherein we shall not find 
any indecency to shock the most modest tongue or ear. 

Perhaps there has hardly been a writer in any nation, 
and I may dare to affirm there is none in our's, has a 
richer and happier talent of painting to the life, or has 
ever discovered such a large and inexhausted variety 
of description, as the celebrated Mr. Pope. If you read 
his translation of Homer's Iliad, you will find almost all 
the terms or phrases in our tongue that are needful to 
express any thing that is grand or magnificent ; but if 
you peruse his Odyssey, which descends much more in- 
to common life, there is scarce any useful subject of dis- 
course or thought, or any ordinary occurrence, which 
he has not cultivated and dressed in the most proper 
language ; and yet still he has ennobled and enlivened 
even the lower subjects with the brightest and most a- 
greeable ornaments. 

I should add here also, that if the same author had 
more frequently employed his genius upon divine themes, 
his short poem on the Messiah, and seme part of his let- 
ters between Abelard and Ehnsa, with that ode on the 
dying Christian, &c. sufficiently assure us, that his pen, 
would have honourably imitated some of the tender scenes 
S 2 



202 OJ? THE SCIENCES, 

of penitential sorrow, as well as the sublimer odes of the 
Hebrew Psalmist, and perhaps discovered to us, in a. 
better manner than any other translation has done, how 
great a poet sat upon the throne of Israel. 

4. After all that I have said, there is yet a further 
use of reading poesy ; and that is, when the mind has 
been fatigued" with studies of a more laborious kind, or 
when it is any ways unfit forths pursuit of more difficult 
subjects, it may be, as it were, unbent, and repose itself 
a while on the fiowery meadows where the muses dwell. 
It is a very sensible relief to the sou!, when it is over tir- 
ed, to amuse itself with the numbers and beautiful sen- 
timents of the poets ; and in a little time this agreeable 
amusement may recover the languid spirits to activity 
and more important service. 

XXXVII. All this I propose to the world as my best, 
observations about reading of verse. But if the question 
were offered to me, Shall a student, of a bright genius, 
never divert himself with writing poesy f* I would an- 
swer, Yes, when he cannot pcssibly help it ; a lower 
genius, in mature years, would heartily wish that he had 
spent much more time in reading the best authors cf 
this kind, and employed much fewer hours in writing. 
But it must be confessed, or supposed at least, that 
there may be seasons when it is hardly possible for a 
poetic soul to restrain the fancy or quench the flame ; 
when it is hard to suppress the exuberant flow of lofty- 
sentiments, and prevent the imagination from this sort 
of style or language ; and that is the only season, I think, 
wherein this inclination should be indulged ; especially 
by persons who have devoted, themselves to profes- 
sions of a different kind; and one reason is, because 
what they write in that hour, is more likely to carry in 
it some appearance above nature, some happy imitation 
of the dictates of the muse.* 

XXXVIII. There are other things besides history, 
grammar and languages, rhetoric and poesy, which 
have been included under the name of philological 
knowledge ; such as, an acquaintance with the notions, 
customs, manners, tempers, polity, 6cc. of the various 
nations of the earth, or the distinct sects and tribes of 
mankind. This is necessary, m order to understand 

* The Muse, in the ancient heathen sense, is supposed to be a goddess ; 
but, in the philosophic sense, it can mean n<> more than a bright genius, 
with a warm ami strong imagination., elevated tc aft uncommon cleg-ret, 



AND THEIR VSE. .203 

history the better ; and every man who is a lawyer or 
a gentleman, ought to obtain some acquaintance with 
these things, without which he can never read history to 
any great advantage, nor can he maintain his own sta- 
tion and character in lite, with honour and dignity, with- 
out some insight into them. 

XXXIX. Students in divinity ought to seek a larger 
acquaintance with the Jewish laws, polity, customs, &c . 
in order to understand many passages of the.Old Testa- 
ment and the New, and to vindicate the sacred writers 
from, the reproaches of infidels. An acquaintance also 
with many of the Roman and Grecian affairs is needful, 
to explain several texts cf scripture in the New Testa- 
ment, to lead sincere inquirers into the true and genu- 
ine sense of the Evanglists and Apostles, and to guard 
iheir writings from the unreasonable cavils of men. 

XL. The art of criticism is reckoned by some as a 
distinct part of philology ; but in truth it is nothing else 
than a more exact and accurate knowledge or skill in 
the other parts of it, and a readiness to apply that knowl- 
edge upon all occasions, in order to judge well of what 
relates to these subjects, to explain what is obscure in 
the authors which we read, to supply what is defective, 
and amend what is erroneous in manuscripts or ancient 
copies, to correct the mistakes of authors and editors in 
the sense of the words, to reconcile the controversies of 
the learned ; and by these means to spread a juster 
knowledge of these things amongst the inquisitive part of 
mankind. 

Every man who pretends to the learned professions, 
if he doth net arise to be a critic himself in philological 
matters, should be frequently conversing with these 
books, whether dictionaries, paraphrasts, commentators, 
rr other critics, which may relieve any difficulties he 
may meet with, and give him a more exact acquaintance 
with those studies which he pursues. 

And whensoever any ptrson js armed to such a de- 
gree of knowledge in these things as to furnish him well 
for the practice of criticism, let him take great care that 
pride and vanity, contempt of others, with inward wrath 
and insolence,do not mingle themselves with his remarks 
and censuses. Let him remember the common frail- 
ties of human nature, and the mistakes to which the 
wisest man is sometimes liable, that he may practise friis 
art witt) due modesty ami candour, 



aw^§sa©M 



INTRODUCTION. 

Directions for the Attainment of useful Knowledge, 

What will be the state of the mind if uncultivated > 

Who are the persons under the greatest obligations to 
mental improvement ? 

How are correct judgment and reasoning useful to 
persons in humble life ? 

To what exercise do the common duties of society- 
oblige all persons ? 

What will be the consequence of an indiscreet deter- 
mination in matters before us ? 

Who are interested in the concerns of a life to come f 

Wliat is the most important subject on which every 
one should reason correctly ? 

Which are the most suitable opportunities for this duty ? 

What are the necessary duty and interest of every 
person ? 

What is the consequence of acting without thought or 
reason ? 

In what respects are we accountable to God ? 

What is the design of logic ? 

In what way have many writers perverted this science? 

CHAPTER I. 

General Rules for the Imfirovtmcat of Knowledge, 

Rule I. 
Of what should the mind be deeply possessed ? 
What should we review, and think upon seriously ? 
To what exertions will this awaken us ? 

Rule II. 
What are the considerations which expose us to error 

in our j udgments of things ? 
What are the subjects discussed by different authors, 
tefc which we should carefully attend ? 



aUESTIONS, 20fi 

Rule 3. 
What will Incite to labour and activity in the pursuit 
. of knowledge ? 

Of what should we take a wide survey ? 
On what should we meditate ? 
What is fabled of Alexander the Great ? 
What are the worlds that cannot be conquered ? 
What are the questions and difficulties on which we 

should think ? 
On what inquiries should we spend a few thoughts ? 
For what reasons should we do this ? 
By what means did Arithmo learn modesty ? 
What is an evidence of improvement? 
What should we read, and with whom should we be 

acquainted ? 
What effect should this produce ? 
What will be a barrier against all improvement ? 

Rule 4. 
What has proved a temptation to persons of a vigorous 

fancy ? 
What is related of Lucidas and Scinfillo ? 
Whose presence and what test should such persons 

avoid ? 

Rule 5. 
Can laborious reading and a strong memory insure true 

wisdom ? 
What may be applied to every sort of learning ? 
How may the understanding be best improved ? 
How may we justly obtain the reputation of true 

learning ? 
For whom are many of the preceding advices peculiar- 
ly proper ? 

Rule 6. 

Who are the persons unfitted for dcvotedness to the 

sciences ? 
What are the dispositons that Avill bring contempt on 

a profession i 

Rule 7. 
What should animate our daily industry? 
What has the ingenuity of man brought to light ? 
What should a student in divinity not imagine ? 
W hat truths of the Christian religion still embarrass 

the minds of honest inquirers ? 



206 guestioms. 

Rule 8. 
How may we attain the knowledge of things which 

relate to our own profession ? 
Who are the persons, whose opinions of men and 

books are disregarded ? 
On what subjects should we not pretend to form a 
* judgment ? 

Rule 9. 
In what particulars should we daily call ourselves to 

an account ? 
What was the rule considered sacred amongst .the 
Pythagoreans ? 

Rule 10. 
By what means may we fix our opinions and form a 

correct judgment ? 
What are the inconveniences of a dogmatical spirit ? 

Rule 11. 
What is an evidence of humility united with courage ? 
Into what mistake may a wise man suddenly fall ? 

Rule 12. 
How should we conduct so as to raise our judgment 

superior to that of the vulgar ? 
How ma}' fancy and humour distress us ? 
What is the description of a humourist ? 

Rule 13. 
What is the spirit and conduct calculated to lead us 

into error ? 
What are the consequences of jesting and foolish 
merriment ? 

Rule 14. 
What is that indulgence which perverts the mind in 

pursuit of truth ? 
What wiU follow an abandonment of religion } 
Who are the characters given up to string delusions? 

Rule 15. 

Against what should we carefully watch ? 

What is the advice of Solomon ? 

What is the course which should lead us to fear the 

displeasure of God ? 

Rule 16. 
For what should we sur plicate the Father of lights? 
Wha should be our thoughts of the Author of our 

beng ? 
To what does Christianity obligate a student ? 



QUESTIONS. 20? 

CHAP. II. 

Observation, Reading, Instruction by Lectures^ 
Conversation^ and Study, compared. 

What ave the five eminent means of knowledge ? 

What is observation ? 

What may be called experience, and experiment ? 

How is the art of reading defined ? 

How are lectures described, and what are their uses? 

What is conversation ? 

What is included in meditation or study, and what are 
their benefits ? 

What are the advantages of observation ? 

How may the mind be improved by reading ? 

How are public or private lectures rendered profitable? 

In what way does conversation tend to mental improve- 
ment? 

What is indispensable in the acquisition of knowledge ? 

What are the advantages of thought and reasoning? 

How may the correct sentiments of others become 
properly our own ? 

What is the difference between hearing, and study? 

CHAPTER III. 

Rules relating- to Observation. 
What are some of the methods by which we may en- 



large our knowledg 



How should the curiosity of the young be encouraged ? 

In what way can useful thinking be promoted? 

From what should we keep our minds free, and why ? 

In what circumstances are envy, pride and self-flatte- 
ry apparent? 

What is the curiosity which ought to be suppressed, 
and why ? 

What should be our object, in our observation of per- 
sons and their conduct ? 

What are the thoughts, which should for the most 
part be secreted ? 

By what good old rule may our conversation be regu- 
lated ? 

What are the best means of establishing correct gen- 
eral theories ? 

CHAPTER IV. 

Of Books and Reading. 
What useful remarks are made on books ? 



"268 -aoEsTiotts.. 

How may the reading of a student be directed mos* 

profitably ? 

What is a good rule in the study of books of importances 

By what method may the reading of the same book, by 

three or four persons be rendered beneficial to each i 

What is another method by which persons engaged in 

the same study may be profited? 
In reading or in conversation, what should be our chief 

business? 
What should be our practice, after going through one 

course of a science r 
By what means may the plans of some books be im- 
proved? 
What advantages may be derived from making an in- 
dex to a valuable book which has none? 
What remarks on authors will enrich the understand- 
ing? 
How may that reading be described, which is not at- 
tended with advances in true knowledge ? 
What are the directions by which we may judge just- 
ly and reason correctly concerning the valuable works 
which we may peruse ? 
What ought to be our determinations in the examina- 
tion of human authors ? 
What are the three important things to-be observed in 

our reading? 
In the reading of practical treatises, what should be 

our conduct? 
What is of more consequence than the richest treas- 
ures of mere speculative knowledge ? 
When one person reads to several, what are the ideas 

on which remarks should be made ? 
What are the passages, &c. which require a private 

review ? 
What is worthy of remark respecting the Tattler, Ad- 
dison's Spectator, Sec. i 
Of what utility are dictionaries, &c. of several sorts ? 
To what two temptations are superficial readers liable ? 
Who is deplorably poor in his understanding ? 

CHAPTER V. 
Judgment of Books. 
How may we be assisted in our judgment of a book ? 
By what rule may wc safelv reject the production of 
an author ? 



atrEsTioNs. 209 

In judging of books, what are the most common mis- 
takes ? 

What noble principle do those infidels lay aside, who 
jest with the Bbie? 

Flow may we be qualified to judge of a particular sub- 
ject ? 

After having become masiersof a particular theme, to 
what mistake in judgment are we liable ? 

Who are the persons that obtrude their opinions on 
subjects above their capacity ? 

Who may be named as another sort of judges ? 

What is a mischievous principle in judging of books? 

V/hat is the more noble example which Horace would 
give us ? 

W hat does Rcscrmmon say of Homer ? 

What are some evidences of the base passion of envy ? 

How may this invidious humour be counteracted ? 

What is a peculiar excellence of Sir Richard Steele's 
essay, called the Christian Hero ? 

What may be reasonably demanded of little, ill-natured 
critics ; and wny ? 

What is a veiy frequent fault in our judgment upon 
books ? 

In what way should we speak of the writings of the 
Archbishop of Cawbray ? 

What should we remember respecting this great marit 

What may be said of the poesy of Casimere? 

What is the general character of Milton's Paradise 
Lost? 

By what considerations should we be influenced in judg- 
ing of a man, who censures or commends a book ? 

CHAPTER VI. 

Of living Instructions and Lectures, of Teachers and 
Learners . 

How are the advantages of a tutor's instructions ap~ 
parent? 

What are the benefits of a plurality of tutors ? 

What are some of the circumstances which disqualify 
a man for the office of an instructor ? 

What are the qualifications, temper and conduct ne- 
cessary to constitute a good tutor ? 

In what way should the learner improve the precepts 
of his tutor ? 

What is the behaviour becoming a student ? 



210 aiTESTIOHS. 

What should be the student's opinion of his instructer i 
and with what disposition should he make' known 
his doubts and scruples £ 

What is a frequent and growing folly ? 

Of what two extremes are youth in danger? 

What is the duty of a learner to his teacher? 

CHAPTER VII. 

Of learning a Language, 

How are the living languages distinguished from the 
dead? 

What directions are necessary in learning a language ? 

What is the best plan of a grammar for learning the 
Latin tongue ? 

By what means may the most rapid progress be made ? 

What are the advantages of conversing in a language 
to be studied ? 

What is a most useful exercise for boys ? 

What may be fairly objected against the teaching of 
Latin by the heathen poets, as Ovid, Horace, Juve- 
nal, &c? 

After the learning of a language, what should be our 
practice ? and what is the disposition, common to a 
critic, against which we should watch ? 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Of inquiring into the Sense and Meaning of any Wri- 
ter or Sficaker, and especially the Sense of the Sa- 
cred Writings. 

What is the first rule to direct us in . understanding a 
writer or speaker ? 

What is the second ? 

What is the third > 

What is the fourth ? 

What is the fifth ? 

What is the sixth ? 

What is the seventh ? 

What is the eighth ? 

What is the ninth ? 

What is the tenth ? 

What is the eleventh ? 

What should we remember? and of what should we 
maintain an awful sense ? 

CHAPTER IX. 

Rides of Improvement by Conversation, 
By what means may conversation be rendered improving; ? 



j atJESTiows. 211 

la what respects may company become salutary? 

I'How may we gain improvement from those with whom 

| we meet ? 

j Why should we not confine our conversation to one sort 

J of company ? 

| How may conversation enlarge our minds? 

1 What should be our endeavour in mixed company ? 

With what should we not be provoked ; and why ? 

How may we learn the narrowness of our own minds ? 

What is a great advantage in the pursuit of knowledge ? 

How may conversation, in social parties, become valu- 
able? 

What should be the conduct of a hearer, whilst one of 
the company expresses his opinion ? 

For what reason should we avoid prejudice against a 
plain style ? 

What is the best method to obtain an explanation of 
obscure expressions ? 

By what means may objections be made with modesty ? 

How should a candid hearer express his differences 
in opinion ? 

Of what should we maintain a constant sense ? 

What are the advantages of confessing our imperfect 
information ? 

W r hy should we withhold our decisions in company ? 

On what occasion may it be proper to repel a bold ad- 
vocate of error ; and why ? 

For what reasons should we avoid a disputatious temper? 

What is calculated to bar the understanding against 
salutary convictions ? 

What are the best methods of gaining improvement, or 
of communicating instruction, in conversation? 

What is the affectation we should avoid? 

How may a confused conversation be reduced to order ? 

What are the things we should not cliai ge upon others ; 
and why ? 

What are the evils in conversation which are enemies 
to friendship ? 

What are the best means of counteracting ungenerous 
reproaches? 

To what manner of conversing should we be inured, 
and on what occasions ? 

What ought to be the character of cur chosen com- 
panions ? 



£12 atTESTIONS.- 

What are those infirmities in a person, which render 

him unsuitable as an associate ? 
What shouLd the contemplation of these evil qualities 

teach us? 
On retiring from company ,what should be our thoughts? 
What are the errors of conversation, which we should 

notice for the purpose of avoiding ? 
What are the advantages of an easy manner of address ? 

CHAPTER X. 

Of Disputes. 

How is the practice of disputing described ? 

In what way may disputes arise ; and how are they 
pursued ? 

What may be the consequences of disputes in couver* 
sation ? 

What should be observed in attempts to convince one 
of error ? 

In what should disputants endeavour to agree; and why? 

From what should the question be cleared, and how il- 
lustrated ? 

Why is such a course necessary ? 

How may disputants be kept to the point of inquiry ? 

Of what evil is the pride of man the spring ? 

What is the bane of improvement, and how does it op- 
erate ? 

With what design should we enter on a debate ? 

Against what should we watch narrowly in a dispute ; 
and why ? 

Give some examples of unguarded conversation. 

How do the purposes of God afford encouragements to 
prayer ? 

By what caution should we guard against the subtle; 
errors of men ? 

What are some of the false opinions relative to true 
virtue ? 

By what means does the great Master of the human 
family instruct us in virtue ? 

How may an opponent be silenced or convinced ? 

When may the passions misguide the judgment? 

What are the three sorts of disputation? 
CHAPTER XI. 
The Socratical Way of Disputation. 

From whom does the Socratical method of dispute de- 
rive its name ? 



auESTioNs. < 213 

I 

jOive an example of the Socratical way of disputation. 
I 1 What are the advantages of this method ? 
What is the method nearly a- kin to this ? 
I; What would be a happy manner of framing Christian 
I catechisms? 

I CHAPTER XII. 

Of Forensic Disfiutes. 
What is a general definition of forensic disputes ? 
On what occasions is this practice used ? 
What is the method of proceeding ? g 

Where the question consists of several parts, what is 

the method ? 
What is usual before the final sentence ; and why ? 
How may forensic disputes be rendered useful? 
What was the practice amongst the Roman youth, as 

suggested by Juvenal ? 

CHAPTER XIII. 

Of Academic, or Scholastic Disputation. 

What are the common methods of dispute in schools 
of learning ? 

To what do the laws of disputation relate ? 

What are the laws obliging the opponent ? 

What are those which oblige the respondent ? 

What are those which oblige both disputants ? 

Enumerate some advantages attained by academical 
disputation. 

What Hre some of its inconveniences ? 

What are the general directions for scholastic disputes ? 

How should the tutor or moderator direct the dispu- 
tation advantageously $ 

CHAPTER XIV. 

Of Study, or Meditation. 

What has been proved and established ? 

To a good genius and happy judgment, what is an in- 
dispensable addition in the acquisition of wisdom ? 

What is the first direction for youth in the pursuit pi" 
study ? 

In the science of theology, what is a common danger? 

By what absurd tests have truth and heresy been tried ? 

What are the practices which may discourage young 
students? 



£14 QUESTIONS, 

By what means may the difficulties of study be sur- 
mounted ? 

What is the pursuit calculated to distract the under- 
standing ? 

How may our diversions be made to enrich our minds ? 

What is a good rule in the pursuit of valuable know- 
ledge ? 

By what rule should we exert our care and skill in the 
discussion of subjects ? 

What advantages flow from this one direction? 

What are the evils which may flow from an injudicious 
fondness for a particular science ? 

What is the fault of some little souls ; and its conse- 
quences ? 

What is the science which should always stand chief? 
and why ? 

What should be the plan of our studies as to time ? 

How may fatigue in study be avoided ? 

In the beginning of a new study, what should be our 
conduct? 

What course should we pursue* when we cannot obtain 
all the evidence which we desire ? 

In what way should speculative studies be applied to a 
practical use ? 

What are the things in which it may be unnecessary 
to change ? and why ? 

CHAP. XV. 
Of fixing the Attention. 

How may we obtain satisfactory evidence of truth, and 
avoid mistakes ? 

What is the effect of attachment to a particular study. 

What are the uses and dangers of emblematical rep- 
resentations ? 

Describe the authors whose works should be studied. 

What are the things which render any place unsuita- 
ble as a place of study ? 

For what reasons should our decisions sometimes be 
withheld ? 

In our studies, what are the dangers from our passions 
and appetites? 

When may any passion of the soul be salutary in our 
inquiries ? 

How may the mind be fixed and engaged in the search 
of truth ? 



GUESTIOKS. 21& 

CHAP., XVI. 

Of Enlarging the Capacity of the Mind, 

What are the three things which constitute a capa- 
cious minds* 

Who are the persons of a narrow and contracted habit 
of soul ? 

Mention some of the facts, at the relation of which 
such persons stand aghast. 

In what way is it best to commence the instruction of 
such ? 

Of what use may be the reading of Milton's Paradise 
Lost? 

Where may we find the most sublime ideas and the 
most elevated language ? 

How will an enlargement of our minds lead us to con- 
template the glory of God and his Son ? 

Describe the second evidence of a noble capacity of 
mind. 

How may narrow views be eradicated ? 

How may free conv ersations with persons differing from 
us, improve our minds ? 

What are some of the truths in astronomy and natural 
philosophy which astonish the unlearned ? 

What is the best cure of this ignorance? 

Describe the third evidence of a noble capacity of mind? 

What are some of the inconveniences of a narrow mind, 
in relation to religion, human prudence, civil gov- 
ernment, &c. ? 

Who are the persons that ought never to set up for 
scholars ? 

What makes a great man ? 

What are the six general rules by which the capacity 
of the mind may be increased ? 

CHAPTER XVII. 

Of Improving the Memory. 
Describe the memory, a*id its advantages. 
How may the judgment be distinguished from the 

memory? 
What is a good rule to persons of all capacities ? 
What are some of the infirmities of genius and memory? 
What constitutes a wealthy and a happy mind ? 
What are some of the joy?, that do not belong to 

mortality ? 



%16 fetfESTIONS. 

At what age does the memory grow, and how may it f 

be improved, or injured ? 
What are the four qualifications of a good memory ? 
How will a due exercise of the memory improve it? 
What is the first general rule for improving th? I 

memory ? 
W T hat is the second ? 
What is the third ? 
What is the fourth ? 
What is the fifth? 
What is the sixth ? 
What is the seventh ? 
What is the eighth ? 
What is the ninth ? 

CHAP. XVIII. 

Of Determining a Question. 

In considering a question, what should be our first 
thoughts ? 

How may the inquiry and argument of a question be 
rendered plain and easy ? 

How may the obscurity of a question be removed? 

What is the advantage of the clear statement of a 
question ? 

If the question relate to an axiom, what are the truths 
connected with its solution ? 

When may a proposition be called an axiom ? 

In searching after truth, what is a good rule? 

Describe the persons who build their opinions upon in- 
sufficient grounds. 

In deciding a question of difficulty, what may be called 
instances of a partial examination ? 

By what indulgence may we be led into gross errors ? 

By what follies may the mind receive a false bias ? 

What is the zeal against which we should watch ; and 
why ? 

Why should jest and ridicule be avoided in our re- 
searches ? 

What are inefficient methods of conviction ? 

W T hat is a profane insolence, and its perils ? 

Of what should we be aware in reading controversial 
productions ? 

When should a question not be determined by a single 
argument ; and why ? 

Of what should we take a full survey in a subject ? 



auEsTiojrs. 217 

j/Vhat is a good rule by which our assent to a proposi* 
[ tion should be proportioned ? 

jlVhat are some of the truths believed with different 
[| degrees of assent ? 

bn what grounds did our Saviour commend a strong 
' ! faith? 

How may we distinguish the duties, which should evi- 
dently bind our consciences, from other duties ? 
What are three good rules in judging of probabilities I 
By what means and in what particulars should our 
I judgments be settled ? 

In considering the gospel, what should we remember; 
I and for what reasons ? 

CHAPTER XIX. 

Of inquiring into Causes and Effects. 
In our inquiries into the causes of an effect, what me- 
I thod should We follow ? 
JHow should we proceed in relation to natural philoso- 

phy? 
How in relation to events in the moral world ? 
In our inquiries into the t ffects of a cause, what method 

should we take > 
How do physicians improve their skill ? 
By what means may a preacher extend his usefulness ? 
What must we distinguish in relation to causes and 

effects ? 

CHAPTER XX, 
Of the Sciences, and their Use in particular Prg* 

fessions. 
Of what use is system* in the learning of a science ? 
What is the remark of an ingenious writer ? 
Why is it that we have so many naif-scholars ? 
After a good acquaintance with the compendium of a 

science, how should we proceed ? 
In what respects may a tutor be advantageous ? 
When should the languages be studied ; and why ? 
What are above the capacities of children ? 
What are the sciences pleasing to young persons ? 
What are the three reasons that render the study of 

these sciences easy ? 
How may certain sciences be preserved in the memory? 
Of what should every scholar attain some general ideas t 
What parts of a science should be stud:e.l first? 
U 



218 mmsTioffs* 

What should we learn from the connexion of the sci- 
ences ? 

What are the sciences, a moderate knowledge of which 
are of practical use ? 

What was the sentence of Dr. Cheyne respecting some 
mathematical studies ? 

What are the advantages of a knowledge of elegant 

W>roblems in the mathematics ? 
fay is the study of history essential to politicians and 
ecclesiastics ? 

How is the study of sacred biography useful ? 

What are the uses of logic and metaphysics? 

What are the benefits of a knowledge of natural phi- 
losophy ? 

How is this science necessary to a physician ? 

Why necessary to a lawyer or a judge ? 

In what way useful to a divine ? 

How may the knowledge of animal nature and of the 
rational soul be of practical use ? ^ 

Of what does natural religion consist, as comprised in 
two parts ? 

How d es natural religion harmonize with revealed ¥ 

What is a necessary caution on this subject ? 

To what should the study of natural religion lead us? 

What is meant by the civil law ? 

What were the first grounds of this law ? 

What is a more important law, and its uses ? 

What are the philological studies ? 

Why is the Latin necessary to the student in law ? 

In what way have the priesthood of Rome, the lawyers 
and physicians abused the people ? 

Why fre Greek and Latin necessarv to physicians? 

How will the Latin, Greek and Hebrew assist the stu- 
dies of the Christian minister ? 

What are the chief uses of the Syriac and Arabic 
tongues ? 

What of the Chaldean ? 

What is grammar, and its necessity ? 

What are the three parts of rhetoric ? 

By what means may this art be attained ? 

Why should it be bid aside by pleaders at the bar ? 

What are the reasons which justify its use by Christ- 
ian ministers ? 

By what reasons is the reading of poesy enforced? 



atTEBTIONS. $19 

When may a genius indulge himself in writing poesy ? 

What studies promote a knowledge of history ? 

VV hit is the knowledge which students m divinity ought 

to seek ; and wh ? 
What is the *-rt of criticism, and its uses? 
How may our studies b facilitated ? 
Of what "sh u'd a good critic be aware, that modesty 

and candour may accompany his criticisms ? 






CONTENTS. < ' 



Preface * . - - = « 

The Introduction * - - 5 

Chap. I. General rules for the improvement of 

knowledge ------ 7 

Chap II. Five methods of improving, described and 

compared, viz. Observation, reading, instruction 

by lectures, conversation, and study, With their 

several antadvages arid defects 21 

Chap. III. Of observation, either by the senses or 

the mind ~ . ~ " " ^ 

Chap, IV Of reading and books, with directions 

relating thereto - 37 

Chap. V. The judgment of books, both approbation 

and censure - - - - - - 47 

Chap. VI. Of living instructions and lectures, of 

teachers and learners - 57 

Chap. VII. Of learning a language, particularly the 

Latin ._---_. 61 

Chap. VIII. Of inquiring into the sense and meaning 

of any writer or speaker, whether human or divine 69 
Chap. IX. Of conversation and profiting by it, and 

of persons fit or unfit for free converse 72 

Chap. X. Of disputes^ and general rules relating to 

them * -_--." 86 

Chap. XI. Of Socratical disputation, by question 

and answer ------ 97 

Chap. XII. Of forensic disputes in courts of justice 

or public assemblies - 99 

Chap XIII. Of academic or scholastic disputes, and 

the rules of them, and how far they may be useful 101 
Chap. XIV. Of study, or meditation, and the final 

determination of things by our own judgment 11T 
Chap, XV Of fixing the attention - - 12i 

Chap . XVI. Of enlarging the capacity of the mind 12-j 
Chap. XVII. Of the memory, and the improvement 

thereof ------- 138 

Chap XVIII. Of determining a question ; several 

cautions about it ; of reason and revelation ; of 

argument and ridicule ; of assent only in propor- I 

tion to evidence, &c. - 159 

Chap. XIX. Of inquiring into causes and effects 175 
Ghap, XX. Of the science?, and their uses in par- 
ticular professions, --'*••-•',. i 178 



